Pigment Reduction in Corn Gluten Meal and Its Effects on Muscle ...

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ased on a sensory panel evaluat<strong>in</strong>g colour variation (expressed as SalmoFan TM scores, rang<strong>in</strong>gfrom score 21 to 29). Fillets with colour scores below 23 were identified as hard to sell at anyprice (Alfnes et al., 2006).2.5 Economic implications of salmonid muscle pigmentationAstaxanth<strong>in</strong> is by far the most expensive commodity <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> formulated diets forsalmonid fish, its price may vary from 1500 to 2000 USD kg -1 (Bjerkeng, 2008). <strong>Pigment</strong>supplementation generally represents up to 10-20% of the feed <strong>in</strong>gredients’ cost (Bjerkeng,2000; Choubert et al., 2009), however these expensive pigments are poorly utilized by fish.Astaxanth<strong>in</strong> flesh deposition rate is <strong>in</strong> general very low (
observed <strong>in</strong> ra<strong>in</strong>bow trout with an <strong>in</strong>itial body weight of 550 g fed a commercial diet conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g60 mg kg -1 of astaxanth<strong>in</strong> for 56 days (Ytrestoyl <strong>and</strong> Bjerkeng 2007).Differences of 30 to 50% have been reported between digested astaxanth<strong>in</strong> (ADC) <strong>and</strong>astaxanth<strong>in</strong> muscle deposition <strong>in</strong> ra<strong>in</strong>bow trout (958 g, f<strong>in</strong>al body weight) fed a diet conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g52 mg of astaxanth<strong>in</strong> per kg after a 6 weeks feed<strong>in</strong>g trial (No <strong>and</strong> Storebakken, 1991).2.6 Muscle pigmentation <strong>in</strong> salmonid fish2.6.1 Carotenoid pigmentsCarotenoids are hydrophobic, isoprene derivatives, pigments bio-synthetized by plants,algae <strong>and</strong> photosynthetic bacteria; more than 600 of these compounds have been identified,characterized <strong>and</strong> isolated from natural sources.On a molecular basis, all carotenoids are characterized by a C 40 carbon skeleton. Thiscarbon backbone conta<strong>in</strong>s 3 to 13 conjugated double bounds (polyene), <strong>and</strong> may be cyclized atone or both ends. Figure 2.1 shows the structures of some important carotenoids found <strong>in</strong> nature.Carotenoids are classified <strong>in</strong>to two major groups accord<strong>in</strong>g to their chemical composition: (1)carotenes, when only carbon <strong>and</strong> hydrogen atoms are present <strong>in</strong> their structure, <strong>and</strong> (2)xanthophylls, when one or more oxygen molecules are conta<strong>in</strong>ed with<strong>in</strong> their moleculararrangement (Brenna <strong>and</strong> Berardo, 2004).<strong>Pigment</strong>s are widely distributed <strong>in</strong> nature <strong>and</strong> are responsible for the yellow, orange <strong>and</strong>red colouration <strong>in</strong> many fruits, birds, fish <strong>and</strong> crustacea. Animals are unable to synthesise10
Page 1 and 2: Pigment Re
Page 3 and 4: ingredients. Furth
Page 5 and 6: Thanks to all my colleagues, friend
Page 7 and 8: 2.10.1 Enzymatic treatments .......
Page 9 and 10: LIST OF TABLESTable 3. 1 - Factors
Page 11 and 12: LIST OF FIGURESFigure 2. 1 - Molecu
Page 13 and 14: Ingredients commonly in</st
Page 15 and 16: CHAPTER - 2 LITERATURE REVIEW2.1 In
Page 17 and 18: leached when 5% of soy flour as LOX
Page 19: deep and fast glyc
Page 23 and 24: Chylomicron constituents are remove
Page 25 and 26: Muscle growth in r
Page 27 and 28: 2.7.2 Corn gluten
Page 29 and 30: 2010). However, due to its imbalanc
Page 31 and 32: No differences in
Page 33 and 34: supplemented with 42% of a vegetabl
Page 35 and 36: Soybean seeds are the richest known
Page 37 and 38: 2.10.1.4 Bleaching
Page 39 and 40: 2.11 ConclusionInclusion of <strong
Page 41 and 42: 4.0%*68%* 5.6%* 12%* 3.5%* 6.5%*Fig
Page 43 and 44: Figure 2. 4 - Schematic representat
Page 45 and 46: 3.1 IntroductionThe characteristic
Page 47 and 48: many factors such as LOX source lev
Page 49 and 50: During the 12-week
Page 51 and 52: 3.2.3 Analytical methodsDry matter
Page 53 and 54: solution was generated by mix<stron
Page 55 and 56: 3.2.4 Statistical analysisData from
Page 57 and 58: Factors defined as
Page 59 and 60: chromatography). Relative amounts o
Page 61 and 62: After carotenoids are absorbed thro
Page 63 and 64: and ended up <stro
Page 65 and 66: Table 3. 2 - Experimental design us
Page 67 and 68: Table 3. 4 - Analysed proximate com
Page 69 and 70: Proximate composition (Analysed; dr
Page 71 and 72:
Table 3. 7 - Lipoxygenase activity
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18 1 0 -1 0 120 15 0 10 2519 -1 0 1
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Table 3. 10 - HPLC carotenoid profi
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Table 3. 12 - Retain</stron
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Table 3. 14 - Fillet carotenoid con
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Total yellow pigment(mg•kg -1 )25
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Figure 3. 4 - Growth curve of ra<st
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effects of dietary CGM and<
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soybean meal in a
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were randomly samp
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An aliquot (1 ml) of chloroform low
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Retained nitrogen
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significant (p
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Values for all-trans astaxanth<stro
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previous reports where colour attri
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Proximate composition (analysed), d
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Table 4. 2 - Growth performance of
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Table 4. 3 - Carcass chemical proxi
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Table 4. 4 - Retain</strong
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Table 4. 5 - Pigment</stron
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Table 4. 6 - Colour attributes <str
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FiguresFigure 4. 1 - Growth curves
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Figure 4. 3 - Muscle colour attribu
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the effects of dietary reduced-caro
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astaxanthin deposi
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After steeping, ke
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0.9994 and 0.9999,
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under acidic and a
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oxidation within t
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colour difference usin</str
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TablesTable 5. 1 - Analyzed proxima
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Effects of
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Effects of
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Effects of
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Effects of
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Data are mean (n=2).a Steepwater pH
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CHAPTER - 6 GENERAL DISCUSSIONCurre
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significant reduction in</s
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Reduction of pigme
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though wheat gluten meal conta<stro
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BibliographyAas, G.H., Storebakken,
Page 153 and 154:
Bjerkeng, B., Hatlen, B., Wathne, E
Page 155 and 156:
Choubert, G., Cravedi, J., Laurenti
Page 157 and 158:
Fauconneau, B., Andre, S., Chmaitil
Page 159 and 160:
Johnston, I., Li, X., Vieira, V., N
Page 161 and 162:
Li, M.H., Oberle, D.F., Lucas, P.M.
Page 163 and 164:
Peter, C.M., Han, Y., Bolin
Page 165 and 166:
Skonberg, D.I., Hardy, R.W., Barrow
Page 167:
Ytrestoyl, T., Struksnæs, G., Kopp
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