Pigment Reduction in Corn Gluten Meal and Its Effects on Muscle ...

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embedded with<strong>in</strong> the gluten fraction; consequently this commodity conta<strong>in</strong>s substantial amountof pigments (200 – 550 mg kg -1 ), ma<strong>in</strong>ly lute<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> zeaxanth<strong>in</strong>.Negative effects related to dietary corn gluten meal on muscle astaxanth<strong>in</strong> deposition <strong>and</strong>colour attributes are supported by anecdotal evidence from fish farmers along with a few studies.<strong>Reduction</strong> <strong>in</strong> colour attributes was determ<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> fillets from Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) feddiets formulated to conta<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g levels of a plant prote<strong>in</strong> blend (CGM <strong>and</strong> full fat soybeanmeal <strong>in</strong> a 2:1 ratio) <strong>and</strong> 64 mg kg -1 of astaxanth<strong>in</strong> after an 11-week feed<strong>in</strong>g trial (Mundheim etal., 2004). High values <strong>in</strong> yellowness (based on tristimulus colour analysis) were determ<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong>fillets from ra<strong>in</strong>bow trout fed a high CGM diet (22.5%) compared to those from fish fed a highCGM diet (22.5%) supplemented with 100 mg kg -1 canthaxanth<strong>in</strong> for 12 weeks (Skonberg et al.,1998).<strong>Reduction</strong> <strong>in</strong> astaxanth<strong>in</strong> deposition <strong>and</strong> colour attributes <strong>in</strong> muscle from salmonid fish feddiets conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g CGM has been associated with the substantial amount of yellow carotenoidsconta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> this commodity. Even though the metabolic pathways of carotenoids <strong>in</strong> fish are notfully understood, <strong>in</strong>teractions <strong>and</strong>/or competition between different types of pigments dur<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>test<strong>in</strong>al absorption, transport with<strong>in</strong> bloodstream <strong>and</strong>/or deposition with<strong>in</strong> muscle cells arehypothesized based on hydrophobic properties <strong>and</strong> molecular structure similarities shared byastaxanth<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> yellow xanthophylls from CGM.Bleach<strong>in</strong>g of yellow pigments from CGM, for its <strong>in</strong>clusion <strong>in</strong> salmonid fish formulated diets,has been assessed us<strong>in</strong>g different practical process<strong>in</strong>g approaches (i.e. natural maturation,enzymatic oxidation <strong>and</strong> solvent extraction), with diverse results (Park et al., 1997; Gél<strong>in</strong>as et al.,1998; Cha et al., 2000). Up to 70% of the total yellow carotenoids pigments content <strong>in</strong> CGM was5
leached when 5% of soy flour as LOX source was mixed with wet CGM <strong>in</strong> an aqueous mediumat pH 6.5 (Cha et al., 2000; Park et al., 1997).The aims of this literature review are 1) to contribute to a better underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g on the effectsof <strong>in</strong>clusion of plant-prote<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>gredients, specifically corn gluten meal, on muscle quality traitssuch colour <strong>and</strong> 2) to <strong>in</strong>troduce some practical process<strong>in</strong>g methods for corn gluten meal <strong>in</strong> orderto reduce its pigment content <strong>and</strong> reduce its negative effect on muscle pigmentation of salmonidfish.2.2 Evolution of diet formulation for salmonid fish <strong>and</strong> flesh quality assessmentHistorically, aquaculture feeds have relied upon fish meal as a major prote<strong>in</strong> source due tothe high nutritive value of this commodity. Production of salmonid feed has shown a fast growth<strong>in</strong> the last decade, the annual global production of formulated diets for salmonid fish <strong>in</strong> 2006 wasestimated at about 2.6 MMT (Tacon <strong>and</strong> Metian, 2009). The steady <strong>in</strong>crease of price <strong>and</strong> variableavailability of fisheries by-products observed dur<strong>in</strong>g the last three decades had forced salmonidfeed formulators to <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong>clusion levels of more available <strong>and</strong> cost-effective feed <strong>in</strong>gredients<strong>in</strong> order to manage their production costs.Ingredients which have found wide use <strong>in</strong> aquaculture feeds are poultry by-product meal,meat <strong>and</strong> bone meal, soybean meal, soy prote<strong>in</strong> concentrates <strong>and</strong> corn gluten meal (Alexis et al.,1985; Cha et al., 2000; de Francesco et al., 2004). Numerous scientific studies assess<strong>in</strong>g theeffects of these <strong>in</strong>gredients (<strong>and</strong> many other new potentially useful ones) on growth, digestibility<strong>and</strong> nutrient retention have been published <strong>in</strong> the last decades. On the other h<strong>and</strong>, only a fewscientific publications address<strong>in</strong>g the effects of these commodities on flesh quality <strong>in</strong> salmonidfish are available. Inclusion of soy prote<strong>in</strong> concentrate <strong>and</strong> soybean meal (62 <strong>and</strong> 42% <strong>in</strong>clusion6
Page 1 and 2: Pigment Re
Page 3 and 4: ingredients. Furth
Page 5 and 6: Thanks to all my colleagues, friend
Page 7 and 8: 2.10.1 Enzymatic treatments .......
Page 9 and 10: LIST OF TABLESTable 3. 1 - Factors
Page 11 and 12: LIST OF FIGURESFigure 2. 1 - Molecu
Page 13 and 14: Ingredients commonly in</st
Page 15: CHAPTER - 2 LITERATURE REVIEW2.1 In
Page 19 and 20: deep and fast glyc
Page 21 and 22: observed in ra<str
Page 23 and 24: Chylomicron constituents are remove
Page 25 and 26: Muscle growth in r
Page 27 and 28: 2.7.2 Corn gluten
Page 29 and 30: 2010). However, due to its imbalanc
Page 31 and 32: No differences in
Page 33 and 34: supplemented with 42% of a vegetabl
Page 35 and 36: Soybean seeds are the richest known
Page 37 and 38: 2.10.1.4 Bleaching
Page 39 and 40: 2.11 ConclusionInclusion of <strong
Page 41 and 42: 4.0%*68%* 5.6%* 12%* 3.5%* 6.5%*Fig
Page 43 and 44: Figure 2. 4 - Schematic representat
Page 45 and 46: 3.1 IntroductionThe characteristic
Page 47 and 48: many factors such as LOX source lev
Page 49 and 50: During the 12-week
Page 51 and 52: 3.2.3 Analytical methodsDry matter
Page 53 and 54: solution was generated by mix<stron
Page 55 and 56: 3.2.4 Statistical analysisData from
Page 57 and 58: Factors defined as
Page 59 and 60: chromatography). Relative amounts o
Page 61 and 62: After carotenoids are absorbed thro
Page 63 and 64: and ended up <stro
Page 65 and 66: Table 3. 2 - Experimental design us
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Table 3. 4 - Analysed proximate com
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Proximate composition (Analysed; dr
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Table 3. 7 - Lipoxygenase activity
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18 1 0 -1 0 120 15 0 10 2519 -1 0 1
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Table 3. 10 - HPLC carotenoid profi
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Table 3. 12 - Retain</stron
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Table 3. 14 - Fillet carotenoid con
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Total yellow pigment(mg•kg -1 )25
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Figure 3. 4 - Growth curve of ra<st
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effects of dietary CGM and<
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soybean meal in a
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were randomly samp
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An aliquot (1 ml) of chloroform low
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Retained nitrogen
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significant (p
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Values for all-trans astaxanth<stro
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previous reports where colour attri
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Proximate composition (analysed), d
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Table 4. 2 - Growth performance of
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Table 4. 3 - Carcass chemical proxi
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Table 4. 4 - Retain</strong
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Table 4. 5 - Pigment</stron
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Table 4. 6 - Colour attributes <str
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FiguresFigure 4. 1 - Growth curves
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Figure 4. 3 - Muscle colour attribu
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the effects of dietary reduced-caro
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astaxanthin deposi
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After steeping, ke
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0.9994 and 0.9999,
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under acidic and a
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oxidation within t
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colour difference usin</str
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TablesTable 5. 1 - Analyzed proxima
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Effects of
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Effects of
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Effects of
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Effects of
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Data are mean (n=2).a Steepwater pH
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CHAPTER - 6 GENERAL DISCUSSIONCurre
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significant reduction in</s
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Reduction of pigme
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though wheat gluten meal conta<stro
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BibliographyAas, G.H., Storebakken,
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Bjerkeng, B., Hatlen, B., Wathne, E
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Choubert, G., Cravedi, J., Laurenti
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Fauconneau, B., Andre, S., Chmaitil
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Johnston, I., Li, X., Vieira, V., N
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Li, M.H., Oberle, D.F., Lucas, P.M.
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Peter, C.M., Han, Y., Bolin
Page 165 and 166:
Skonberg, D.I., Hardy, R.W., Barrow
Page 167:
Ytrestoyl, T., Struksnæs, G., Kopp
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