Pigment Reduction in Corn Gluten Meal and Its Effects on Muscle ...

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us<strong>in</strong>g SalmoFan colorimetric analysis) was observed <strong>in</strong> fillets of Atlantic salmon (Salmosalar) as graded levels of a vegetable prote<strong>in</strong> blend (CGM <strong>and</strong> full fat soybean meal <strong>in</strong> a 2:1ratio) were <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> diets supplemented with 64 mg kg -1 of astaxanth<strong>in</strong> (Mundheim et al.,2004). Fillets of ra<strong>in</strong>bow trout fed a high CGM (22.5%) diet with no pigment supplementationfor 12 weeks presented yellowish coloration (b* values, tristimulus color analysis) comparedwith those from fish fed a high CGM (22.5%) supplemented with 100 mg kg -1 syntheticcanthaxanth<strong>in</strong> (Skonberg et al., 1998).Before absorption through <strong>in</strong>test<strong>in</strong>al epithelial cells, carotenoids are emulsified <strong>and</strong>further solubilized <strong>in</strong>to lipid mixed micelles, assembled <strong>in</strong>to chilomicrons (very low densitylipoprote<strong>in</strong>s) with<strong>in</strong> enterocytes, released <strong>in</strong>to the blood stream <strong>and</strong> eventually bound to an α-act<strong>in</strong> molecule with<strong>in</strong> muscle fiber (Aas et al., 1999; Furr <strong>and</strong> Clark, 1997; Henmi et al., 1987;Matthews et al., 2006; Salvador et al., 2007). Based on hydrophobic properties <strong>and</strong> molecularsimilarities shared by astaxanth<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> xanthophylls from CGM <strong>and</strong> the reported presence oflute<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> zeaxanth<strong>in</strong> with<strong>in</strong> salmonid fish muscle (Kitahara, 1983), a potential<strong>in</strong>teraction/competition among these carotenoids dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>test<strong>in</strong>al absorption, transport with<strong>in</strong>bloodstream <strong>and</strong>/or muscle deposition can be hypothesized when substantial amounts of thiscommodity are used <strong>in</strong> formulated diets for salmonid fish.Lipoxygenases (LOX) are nonheme iron-conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g dioxygenases (EC 1.13.11.12) thatcatalyze the oxygenation of polyunsaturated fatty acids conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g a cis-cis-1, 4-pentadienesystem. LOX-catalyzed bleach<strong>in</strong>g of carotenoids from CGM has been successfully achieved <strong>in</strong>the past. More than 60% of total carotenoids pigments content was bleached when 5% of soyflour as LOX source was mixed with wet CGM <strong>in</strong> an aqueous medium at pH 6.5 (Cha et al.,2000; Park et al., 1997). <strong>Pigment</strong> bleach<strong>in</strong>g ability of LOX has been reported as dependent upon35
many factors such as LOX source level, LOX source pre-soak<strong>in</strong>g, aeration through the reactionmedium, ascorbic acid addition <strong>and</strong> reaction temperature (Park et al., 1997).Therefore, the objectives of this study were to (1) optimize the reduction of lute<strong>in</strong>, zeaxanth<strong>in</strong>, β-cryptoxanth<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> β-carotene <strong>in</strong> CGM through a practical <strong>and</strong> cost-effective pigment bleach<strong>in</strong>gprocess, us<strong>in</strong>g white soy flake flour (WSFF) LOX as bleach<strong>in</strong>g agent <strong>and</strong> (2) assess the effects ofregular <strong>and</strong> treated CGM on growth <strong>and</strong> muscle pigmentation of ra<strong>in</strong>bow trout.3.2 Materials <strong>and</strong> methods3.2.1 Bleach<strong>in</strong>g of carotenoidsCGM (Casco Canada, London, ON, Canada) was bleached us<strong>in</strong>g a bench-scale proceduredeveloped accord<strong>in</strong>g to Cha et al (2000) with some modifications. CGM (20 g) was suspended <strong>in</strong>distilled water (75 ml) <strong>in</strong> a 250 ml Erlenmeyer flask. Solution pH was adjusted to 6.5 <strong>and</strong> whitesoy flakes flour (WSFF) (Bunge Canada, Hamilton, ON, Canada) was added to the mixture;flasks were then placed on a shak<strong>in</strong>g water bath (120 m<strong>in</strong>, 110 r m<strong>in</strong> -1 ). Potential factorsaffect<strong>in</strong>g bleach<strong>in</strong>g of pigments from CGM were applied to the slurry as described <strong>in</strong> theexperimental design section.Samples of the slurry were taken at 0, 60, <strong>and</strong> 120 m<strong>in</strong> of reaction progress <strong>and</strong>centrifuged at 4,000 x g per 20 m<strong>in</strong> (Eppendorf, centrifuge 5810r). Supernatant was discarded<strong>and</strong> result<strong>in</strong>g sediment was kept frozen (-20 °C) until analysis. Heat-treated (deactivated) WSSF,prepared by heat<strong>in</strong>g soy WSFF <strong>in</strong> an oven at 85 °C for 90 m<strong>in</strong>, was used as a control. Carotenoidbleach<strong>in</strong>g rate was determ<strong>in</strong>ed as the ratio of carotenoid content <strong>in</strong> processed samples (i.e. 60 or120 m<strong>in</strong>) to the pigment concentration <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>itial sample (0 m<strong>in</strong>). All trials were run <strong>in</strong>triplicate.36
Page 1 and 2: Pigment Re
Page 3 and 4: ingredients. Furth
Page 5 and 6: Thanks to all my colleagues, friend
Page 7 and 8: 2.10.1 Enzymatic treatments .......
Page 9 and 10: LIST OF TABLESTable 3. 1 - Factors
Page 11 and 12: LIST OF FIGURESFigure 2. 1 - Molecu
Page 13 and 14: Ingredients commonly in</st
Page 15 and 16: CHAPTER - 2 LITERATURE REVIEW2.1 In
Page 17 and 18: leached when 5% of soy flour as LOX
Page 19 and 20: deep and fast glyc
Page 21 and 22: observed in ra<str
Page 23 and 24: Chylomicron constituents are remove
Page 25 and 26: Muscle growth in r
Page 27 and 28: 2.7.2 Corn gluten
Page 29 and 30: 2010). However, due to its imbalanc
Page 31 and 32: No differences in
Page 33 and 34: supplemented with 42% of a vegetabl
Page 35 and 36: Soybean seeds are the richest known
Page 37 and 38: 2.10.1.4 Bleaching
Page 39 and 40: 2.11 ConclusionInclusion of <strong
Page 41 and 42: 4.0%*68%* 5.6%* 12%* 3.5%* 6.5%*Fig
Page 43 and 44: Figure 2. 4 - Schematic representat
Page 45: 3.1 IntroductionThe characteristic
Page 49 and 50: During the 12-week
Page 51 and 52: 3.2.3 Analytical methodsDry matter
Page 53 and 54: solution was generated by mix<stron
Page 55 and 56: 3.2.4 Statistical analysisData from
Page 57 and 58: Factors defined as
Page 59 and 60: chromatography). Relative amounts o
Page 61 and 62: After carotenoids are absorbed thro
Page 63 and 64: and ended up <stro
Page 65 and 66: Table 3. 2 - Experimental design us
Page 67 and 68: Table 3. 4 - Analysed proximate com
Page 69 and 70: Proximate composition (Analysed; dr
Page 71 and 72: Table 3. 7 - Lipoxygenase activity
Page 73 and 74: 18 1 0 -1 0 120 15 0 10 2519 -1 0 1
Page 75 and 76: Table 3. 10 - HPLC carotenoid profi
Page 77 and 78: Table 3. 12 - Retain</stron
Page 79 and 80: Table 3. 14 - Fillet carotenoid con
Page 81 and 82: Total yellow pigment(mg•kg -1 )25
Page 83 and 84: Figure 3. 4 - Growth curve of ra<st
Page 85 and 86: effects of dietary CGM and<
Page 87 and 88: soybean meal in a
Page 89 and 90: were randomly samp
Page 91 and 92: An aliquot (1 ml) of chloroform low
Page 93 and 94: Retained nitrogen
Page 95 and 96: significant (p
Page 97 and 98:
Values for all-trans astaxanth<stro
Page 99 and 100:
previous reports where colour attri
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Proximate composition (analysed), d
Page 103 and 104:
Table 4. 2 - Growth performance of
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Table 4. 3 - Carcass chemical proxi
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Table 4. 4 - Retain</strong
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Table 4. 5 - Pigment</stron
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Table 4. 6 - Colour attributes <str
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FiguresFigure 4. 1 - Growth curves
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Figure 4. 3 - Muscle colour attribu
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the effects of dietary reduced-caro
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astaxanthin deposi
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After steeping, ke
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0.9994 and 0.9999,
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under acidic and a
Page 127 and 128:
oxidation within t
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colour difference usin</str
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TablesTable 5. 1 - Analyzed proxima
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Effects of
Page 135 and 136:
Effects of
Page 137 and 138:
Effects of
Page 139 and 140:
Effects of
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Data are mean (n=2).a Steepwater pH
Page 143 and 144:
CHAPTER - 6 GENERAL DISCUSSIONCurre
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significant reduction in</s
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Reduction of pigme
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though wheat gluten meal conta<stro
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BibliographyAas, G.H., Storebakken,
Page 153 and 154:
Bjerkeng, B., Hatlen, B., Wathne, E
Page 155 and 156:
Choubert, G., Cravedi, J., Laurenti
Page 157 and 158:
Fauconneau, B., Andre, S., Chmaitil
Page 159 and 160:
Johnston, I., Li, X., Vieira, V., N
Page 161 and 162:
Li, M.H., Oberle, D.F., Lucas, P.M.
Page 163 and 164:
Peter, C.M., Han, Y., Bolin
Page 165 and 166:
Skonberg, D.I., Hardy, R.W., Barrow
Page 167:
Ytrestoyl, T., Struksnæs, G., Kopp
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