Pigment Reduction in Corn Gluten Meal and Its Effects on Muscle ...

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carotenoids de novo, hence they must rely upon dietary sources <strong>in</strong> order to access them (Furr <strong>and</strong>Clark, 1997; Yonekura <strong>and</strong> Nagao, 2007).2.6.2 Metabolism of carotenoids <strong>in</strong> salmonid fishCarotenoids are lipid soluble compounds, consequently they are metabolized (i.e.digested, absorbed <strong>and</strong> transported) accord<strong>in</strong>g to the matabolic pathways followed by lipidmolecules (Castenmiller <strong>and</strong> West, 1998; Rajas<strong>in</strong>gh et al., 2006).Carotenoids are solubilized <strong>in</strong> lipid droplets after be<strong>in</strong>g released from feed with<strong>in</strong> thestomach. Lipid aggregates are further emulsified by liver-secreted bile <strong>in</strong> the duodenum.Emulsified lipids are then hydrolysed (by pancreatic lipases) <strong>in</strong>to free fatty acids <strong>and</strong>monoglycerols, which rema<strong>in</strong> associated with carotenoids, other lipids <strong>and</strong> bile acids <strong>in</strong>structures called mixed micelles. Polar xanthophylls are found <strong>in</strong> the surface of lipid emulsions<strong>and</strong> mixed micelles. On the other h<strong>and</strong>, less polar carotenes are located with<strong>in</strong> the hydrophobiccore from these assemblies (Borel et al., 1996; Furr <strong>and</strong> Clarck, 1997). Molecules positionedwith<strong>in</strong> surface of this lipid structures can be spontaneously transferred as opposed to componentattached to the core, which need digestion before be<strong>in</strong>g released (Borel et al., 1996).Carotenoids with<strong>in</strong> micelles are absorbed, along with other lipids, by <strong>in</strong>test<strong>in</strong>al cells(enterocytes) through simple diffusion. With<strong>in</strong> the enterocyte, carotenoids are aggregated <strong>in</strong>totriglyceride-rich lipoprote<strong>in</strong>s called chylomicrons <strong>and</strong> released <strong>in</strong>to the lymph <strong>and</strong> eventually<strong>in</strong>to the blood stream for deliver to peripheral tissue <strong>and</strong> liver.11
Chylomicron constituents are removed by lipoprote<strong>in</strong> lipase <strong>and</strong> distributed <strong>in</strong> peripheraltissue. Chylomicron remnants are then taken up by the liver <strong>and</strong> rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g carotenoids are eithermetabolized or assembled <strong>in</strong>to lipoprote<strong>in</strong>s <strong>and</strong> sent aga<strong>in</strong> to the bloodstream toward peripheraltissue (Jackson et al., 2008).The liver has been reported as a major site for metabolism <strong>and</strong> excretion of carotenoids <strong>in</strong>fish. The occurrence of high levels of 14 C-labelled canthaxanth<strong>in</strong> (96 h after a s<strong>in</strong>gle forcefeed<strong>in</strong>g) <strong>and</strong> no detectable levels of canthaxanth<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> bile from ra<strong>in</strong>bow trout (400 g fish -1 )suggests that digested canthaxanth<strong>in</strong> was metabolized <strong>in</strong>to different compounds <strong>in</strong> the liver <strong>and</strong>excreted with<strong>in</strong> the bile (Hardy et al., 1990). Similarly, biliary excretion of cantaxanth<strong>in</strong> wasreported for Atlantic salmon (1,000 – 1,400 g fish -1 ) fed diets supplemented with 14 C-labelled<strong>and</strong> regular canthaxanth<strong>in</strong> (Torrissen <strong>and</strong> Ingebrigtsen, 1992).Carotenoids not metabolized or excreted by the liver are re-<strong>in</strong>corporated <strong>in</strong>to lipoprote<strong>in</strong>sbefore be<strong>in</strong>g released from the liver <strong>in</strong>to the blood stream (Rajas<strong>in</strong>gh et al., 2006). Astaxanth<strong>in</strong>has been reported to b<strong>in</strong>d to high density lipoprote<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> ra<strong>in</strong>bow trout (250 g fish -1 ) fed a dietsupplemented with 80 mg kg -1 of astaxanth<strong>in</strong> for 1 month (Choubert et al., 1995). Canthaxanth<strong>in</strong>was bound to three serum lipoprote<strong>in</strong> classes although was transported ma<strong>in</strong>ly by low densitylipoprote<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> ra<strong>in</strong>bow trout (195 g fish -1 ) fed a diet supplemented with 80 mg kg -1ofcanthaxanth<strong>in</strong> for 6 weeks (Salvador et al., 2009). In Atlantic salmon, astaxanth<strong>in</strong> was reportedto be transported by both high <strong>and</strong> low density lipoprote<strong>in</strong>s <strong>and</strong> bond to a serum prote<strong>in</strong>hypothesised to be album<strong>in</strong> (Aas et al., 1999).Astaxanth<strong>in</strong> is deposited <strong>in</strong> fish flesh <strong>in</strong> its free form (Schiedt et al., 1985). A subcellularfractionation study conducted <strong>in</strong> muscle samples from wild chum <strong>and</strong> sockeye salmon12
Page 1 and 2: Pigment Re
Page 3 and 4: ingredients. Furth
Page 5 and 6: Thanks to all my colleagues, friend
Page 7 and 8: 2.10.1 Enzymatic treatments .......
Page 9 and 10: LIST OF TABLESTable 3. 1 - Factors
Page 11 and 12: LIST OF FIGURESFigure 2. 1 - Molecu
Page 13 and 14: Ingredients commonly in</st
Page 15 and 16: CHAPTER - 2 LITERATURE REVIEW2.1 In
Page 17 and 18: leached when 5% of soy flour as LOX
Page 19 and 20: deep and fast glyc
Page 21: observed in ra<str
Page 25 and 26: Muscle growth in r
Page 27 and 28: 2.7.2 Corn gluten
Page 29 and 30: 2010). However, due to its imbalanc
Page 31 and 32: No differences in
Page 33 and 34: supplemented with 42% of a vegetabl
Page 35 and 36: Soybean seeds are the richest known
Page 37 and 38: 2.10.1.4 Bleaching
Page 39 and 40: 2.11 ConclusionInclusion of <strong
Page 41 and 42: 4.0%*68%* 5.6%* 12%* 3.5%* 6.5%*Fig
Page 43 and 44: Figure 2. 4 - Schematic representat
Page 45 and 46: 3.1 IntroductionThe characteristic
Page 47 and 48: many factors such as LOX source lev
Page 49 and 50: During the 12-week
Page 51 and 52: 3.2.3 Analytical methodsDry matter
Page 53 and 54: solution was generated by mix<stron
Page 55 and 56: 3.2.4 Statistical analysisData from
Page 57 and 58: Factors defined as
Page 59 and 60: chromatography). Relative amounts o
Page 61 and 62: After carotenoids are absorbed thro
Page 63 and 64: and ended up <stro
Page 65 and 66: Table 3. 2 - Experimental design us
Page 67 and 68: Table 3. 4 - Analysed proximate com
Page 69 and 70: Proximate composition (Analysed; dr
Page 71 and 72: Table 3. 7 - Lipoxygenase activity
Page 73 and 74:
18 1 0 -1 0 120 15 0 10 2519 -1 0 1
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Table 3. 10 - HPLC carotenoid profi
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Table 3. 12 - Retain</stron
Page 79 and 80:
Table 3. 14 - Fillet carotenoid con
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Total yellow pigment(mg•kg -1 )25
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Figure 3. 4 - Growth curve of ra<st
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effects of dietary CGM and<
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soybean meal in a
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were randomly samp
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An aliquot (1 ml) of chloroform low
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Retained nitrogen
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significant (p
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Values for all-trans astaxanth<stro
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previous reports where colour attri
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Proximate composition (analysed), d
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Table 4. 2 - Growth performance of
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Table 4. 3 - Carcass chemical proxi
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Table 4. 4 - Retain</strong
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Table 4. 5 - Pigment</stron
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Table 4. 6 - Colour attributes <str
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FiguresFigure 4. 1 - Growth curves
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Figure 4. 3 - Muscle colour attribu
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the effects of dietary reduced-caro
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astaxanthin deposi
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After steeping, ke
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0.9994 and 0.9999,
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under acidic and a
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oxidation within t
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colour difference usin</str
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TablesTable 5. 1 - Analyzed proxima
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Effects of
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Effects of
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Effects of
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Effects of
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Data are mean (n=2).a Steepwater pH
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CHAPTER - 6 GENERAL DISCUSSIONCurre
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significant reduction in</s
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Reduction of pigme
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though wheat gluten meal conta<stro
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BibliographyAas, G.H., Storebakken,
Page 153 and 154:
Bjerkeng, B., Hatlen, B., Wathne, E
Page 155 and 156:
Choubert, G., Cravedi, J., Laurenti
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Fauconneau, B., Andre, S., Chmaitil
Page 159 and 160:
Johnston, I., Li, X., Vieira, V., N
Page 161 and 162:
Li, M.H., Oberle, D.F., Lucas, P.M.
Page 163 and 164:
Peter, C.M., Han, Y., Bolin
Page 165 and 166:
Skonberg, D.I., Hardy, R.W., Barrow
Page 167:
Ytrestoyl, T., Struksnæs, G., Kopp
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