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Enhancing Professional Socialization Through the Metaphor of Traditiondemocracy to imagine egalitarian organizations for collective action, andcooperative marketplaces for economic exchange. However, this tradition isemergent and is largely normative, as it envisions a future state of socialrelationships that is based on nascent practices observed today. In this role,administrators act as stewards, or facilitators of egalitarian interaction amongsovereign citizens, in pursuit of the common good. In essence, society becomes afluid whole, wherein the political, economic, and civil spheres of social actionare no longer evident as distinct sectors.Organizational Behavior and TheoryIn terms of theory and application, the three traditions offer a way toorganize the various frames (Bolman & Deal, 1997)—or the various periods oforganizational theory—in terms of administrator role, authority and scope ofaction, responsibility and accountability, and organizing style. The way thatorganizational structures and relationships are envisioned shifts dramaticallyfrom tradition to tradition, and offers varying views on organization andmanagement concepts and behavior, as well as on application to the practice ofhuman resources management.In the Constitutional tradition, people are considered to be self-interestedbeings who accept the constraints of the political system in exchange for thebenefits that citizenship brings. Therefore, bureaucratic hierarchy is the mosteffective organizing style. On the one hand, it offers the methods of controlneeded to mitigate self-interest. On the other hand, such control is acceptedbecause it is authorized by the political system. Here we find the orthodox ortraditional approach to bureaucracy, in which authority is delegated via a deephierarchical structure that carries accountability up through the ranks to theexecutive at the top of the pyramid. This structure is designed for a bureaucratwho is a servant to the representative form of government. The onlydiscretionary action anticipated would be to conserve the agency itself and theregime values that it is bound to uphold. In the classical approach toorganizational behavior, employees are somewhat objectified and passive withinthe mechanistic functions motivated by economic gain.In the Discretionary tradition, however, people are considered to be selfinterestedbeings who need very little constraint because liberal transactions ofboth economic and social types produce the most efficient and effective results.Furthermore, each individual is deemed sovereign and expectant of the fullestdegree of liberty possible while maintaining social equilibrium. Therefore,organizations that are freed of inordinate controls are developed. Yet, becausethe administration still draws on the legitimacy of representative government, itcannot recommend doing away with organizational authority altogether.Therefore, organizations are redesigned to support empowered administratorsand outsourcing to the market.308 Journal of Public Affairs Education
Enhancing Professional Socialization Through the Metaphor of TraditionHere, we find the more common contemporary form of government, wherepermeable boundaries between political and administrative activities empoweradministrators, and thus require a flattened hierarchical organizing structure, aswell as more empowered forms of responsibility to desirable outcomes. Thisarrangement supports a more entrepreneurial administrator, who holdsdelegated discretionary authority in the representative form of government. Inthis tradition, neo-classical and early humanistic approaches to organizationalbehavior come into play, along with contemporary structural approaches,leadership, and organizational power theories. In a certain sense, theDiscretionary tradition represents the organizational reality that “administrativeman” works within—a transitional form that is moving from the classicgovernment agency toward governance networks.The Collaborative tradition draws from direct democratic authority, andtherefore it eliminates the need for hierarchical organization altogether. Instead,it calls for network forms of organizing, where all who are concerned oraffected by a given issue will participate in addressing it. The only authorityresides in the law of the situation (Follett, 1995). Once again, this is ademonstrably different approach to the organizational behavior and theory thatis linked to many specific prescriptions for practice. Here, we find that themost advanced humanistic theories of organizational culture and systemstheory combine with fluid network organizing structures to create fullyempowered groups—with the caveat that they must operate under the sameegalitarian rules as all other governance actors, including elected representativesand citizens. In essence, this emerging tradition requires a more direct form ofdemocracy than our current representative system allows. Responsibility andaccountability are ensured through responsiveness to those impacted by adecision or action. This arrangement calls for a facilitative and educative expertwho must answer to fellow citizens as a co-producer of the common good. Thisarrangement also clearly challenges the status quo of representative democraticcapitalism. Therefore, servant and transformational forms of leadership, andorganizational change theories are prominent.Public Policy, Program Evaluation, and Applied AnalysisSeveral listed topics have related competencies that are used throughout thevarious processes and activities involved in public policy. Similarly, severaltraditional elements have an important application to policy formulation,implementation, and evaluation. These include decision-making and problemsolvingmethods, as well as analysis techniques. In these areas, we might refer topractitioners as analysts with expertise in various forms of analysis andevaluation, problem-solving, and policy design.In the Constitutional tradition, the analyst puts her expertise to workspecifically as guided by the bureaucratic hierarchy, and as dictated by theJournal of Public Affairs Education 309
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