Contextual Determinants of Electoral System Choice - Ãbo Akademi

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Paraguay – Mixed-fusion 1967Paraguay replaced list PR with a mixed system in 1967 (León-Roesch 1993: 635-637). As aconsequence of the previous elections in 1963, Paraguay scores 4.18 in the Polyarchy datasetbetween 1963 and 1967. Paraguay was not a democracy in the 1960s.Congo (-Kinshasa) – BV 1967Congo (-Kinshasa) adopted an electoral law in 1967 that provided for national elections underBV. Elections were held in 1970 (Schmidt and Stroux 1999: 284-286). The country has neverbeen a democracy.Equatorial Guinea – SMP 1968The second elections in Equatorial Guinea were held in 1968, a few weeks before independencewas achieved from Spain. SMP was applied in accordance with the 1968 Constitution. As aresult of the 1968 elections, the country scores 12.00 in the Polyarchy dataset 1968-1969.However, the decision on the electoral system of independent Equatorial Guinea was taken innon-democratic circumstances.Maldives – SNTV 1968The Maldives became independent in 1965. The 1968 Constitution provided for parliamentaryelections under SNTV (Lehr 2001: 585-591). The small island state is not noted in the Polyarchydataset. However, the country has never experienced democracy.Mauritius – BV 1968Mauritius proclaimed independence in 1968, one year after pre-independence parliamentaryelections had been held under BV (Krennerich 1999a: 603-609). Although the elections weredemocratic – Mauritius scores 15.83 in the Polyarchy dataset between 1968 and 1975 – thedecision on the electoral system was taken in non-democratic circumstances.Nauru – AV 1968The Electoral Act 1965 provided for parliamentary elections under AV. The first preindependenceelections were conducted in 1951. Nauru is not noted in the Polyarchy dataset.Democratic standards had been met already before independence (Reilly and Gratschew 2001:697-701). Accordingly, Nauru was non-democratic when AV was chosen.Swaziland – BV 1968Swaziland became independent in 1968, one year after pre-independence elections under BV hadbeen held (Basedau 1999c: 863-866). Swaziland scores 0 in the Polyarchy dataset every singleyear.Burkina Faso – List PR 1970The electoral law for the 1970 parliamentary elections provided for a proportional list system.BV had been applied in the previous elections (Grotz 1999: 123-129). Burkina Faso scores 0 inthe Polyarchy dataset between 1960 and 1977.246
Morocco – SMP 1970The 1970 Constitution in Morocco provided for parliamentary elections under SMP. However,only 90 of 240 members were directly elected (Pereira and Fernández 1999: 623-630). Moroccoscores 0 in the Polyarchy dataset between 1966 and 1969.Fiji – SMB-BV 1970Fiji became independent in 1970. The decision on the electoral system was taken at theConstitutional Conference the same year. A mixed plurality system with constituencies at severallevels was introduced. Elections had also been held during the colonial era. The first electionsunder universal suffrage were conducted in 1963 (Hartmann 2001c: 643-653). Fiji is noted in thePolyarchy dataset since 1966, its ID value being 12.09 between 1966 and 1971. I consider Fiji ademocracy when the decision on the electoral system was taken in 1970.Pakistan – SMP 1970The first direct parliamentary elections in Pakistan were held in 1970 (Zingel 2001: 661-673).Pakistan scores 0.04 in the Polyarchy dataset from 1965 to 1969. Consequently, Pakistan was nota democracy when the electoral system for direct elections was chosen.North Yemen – SMP 1971The 1970 Constitution provided for the establishment of a parliamentary system and generalelections in the Yemen Arab Republic (North Yemen). Elections were held in 1971 (Glosemeyer2001: 293-301). The country scores 0 in the Polyarchy dataset during its whole existence.Bangladesh – SMP 1972The 1972 Constitution provided for a parliamentary system and elections under SMP (Ahmed2001: 515-525). Bangladesh scores 0 in 1971, and 5.68 in 1972 in the Polyarchy dataset. As aconsequence of the 1973 elections, its ID value is 6.7. However, I regard Bangladesh as nondemocraticwhen SMP was adopted.Panama – SMP 1972Panama replaced list PR with SMP in 1972 (Bendel and Krennerich 1993b: 605-630). Panamascores 0 in the Polyarchy dataset between 1969 and 1983.Syria – BV 1973Syria introduced an electoral law in 1973 that provided for national elections under BV (Zisser2001: 213-221). Syria has never been a democracy.South Korea – BV 1973South Korea replaced the mixed system with BV in 1973 (Croissant 2001: 411-420). Thecountry scores 0 in the Polyarchy dataset from 1972 to 1979 after having been fairly democraticbetween 1963 and 1971. Accordingly, South Korea was not democratic when BV was chosen.Bahrain – SNTV 1973Bahrain gained independence in 1971. The 1973 Constitution provided for national electionsunder SNTV (Hartmann 2001a: 49-53). Bahrain scores 0 in the Polyarchy dataset every singleyear.247
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Krister LundellContextual Determina
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CONTEXTUAL DETERMINANTS OF ELECTORA
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CIP Cataloguing in PublicationLunde
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at Åbo Akademi University, the Fac
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3.2 Explanations of Electoral Syste
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9. CONCLUSION 2239.1 The Rational P
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politics. Both approaches bear rele
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electoral system choice as an epoch
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1.2 The Importance of Electoral Sys
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Within the range of democratic inst
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will depend on the specific cleavag
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Before describing different voting
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2.1.1 Ballot StructureThe ballot st
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formula, and the variety of elector
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ather be regarded as a characterist
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2.2.1 Plurality Systems2.2.1.1 Sing
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mixture of BV and PBV. In my classi
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Weaver 1984: 198-199). CV implies t
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total election, often pull out of t
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disadvantage is that it presupposes
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parties and minority groups. Furthe
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simultaneously avoiding disproporti
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and Blais. They also agree that the
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Whether one formula applies or not
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difficult. Even an independent comb
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attention to all three main dimensi
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(national, regional and local lists
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The degree of proportionality also
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variables: ethnic and cultural dive
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smallest category, representing 15
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democracies. 12 Nevertheless, the g
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(Vanuatu) are represented by merely
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3. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKIn this cha
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ecognition of opposing views in the
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systems. If we reformulate the ques
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the rules, the lack of knowledge is
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not. Consequently, their analysis c
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proportional electoral systems. He
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groups as possible, to avoid attemp
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associated with certain features an
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also called electoral engineering.
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(2002: 14). Public opinion, often e
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Similar reform societies were estab
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systematically favor or disfavor ce
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interests based on ascriptive commu
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argues, both majorities and minorit
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A more popular form of recognizing
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Among the three basic majoritarian
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politics. When universal suffrage w
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and no electoral threshold in order
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threatened to change the current el
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inadequate since electoral systems
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electoral reform is likely to occur
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main advocates of proportional repr
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whereas majoritarian systems prevai
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The rational learning model sees po
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3.2.4.1 Colonial LegacyColonial leg
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Different colonial powers administe
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The Australian and American colonia
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epresented the “wave of the democ
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The second wave of democratization
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parliamentary elections, particular
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parliamentary or presidential gover
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measure of ethnic and cultural dive
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medium size. The other 40 per cent
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size and electoral systems, two str
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that have previously held general e
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The association between party syste
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democratization process. Neverthele
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The occurrence of list PR in former
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Third, an electoral system must exi
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Three matters are of interest in co
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according to Lijphart’s definitio
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3.3.3.2 Territorial OrganizationA n
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to the whole territory. Countries a
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or non-existence of an ‘additiona
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subset of the world’s countries,
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Concerning data on party system fra
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22). 30 Nevertheless, the coded yea
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(1) free and fair elections of the
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(e.g. 1984; 1990). The index is bas
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standards and Mauritius was democra
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Table 5.1. Ethnic and cultural frag
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Table 5.4. Ethnic and cultural frag
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values. Each integer of the logarit
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is also quite large, and therefore
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1966, and Cyprus 1981. Suriname ado
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significant. 36 The large standard
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small standard deviation values ind
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samples with changes to mixed syste
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a consequence of the party system t
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eplace plurality systems with mixed
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former British colonies did not inh
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Table 6.2. Colonial legacy and elec
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impact on the dependent variable wh
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(1993). All these countries adopted
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On the basis of figure 2.1 in secti
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their electoral systems. Bulgaria a
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as a general determinant of institu
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The average population size among c
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Only two federal states chose elect
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any major role. Regional diffusion,
Page 207 and 208: Plurality systems dominate the thir
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Page 213 and 214: presidential countries. Only Lebano
Page 215 and 216: legislative bodies are distinguishe
Page 217 and 218: legislative relations should also t
Page 219 and 220: etween independent and dependent va
Page 221 and 222: least 90 cases. Notwithstanding, as
Page 223 and 224: Table 8.1. Patterns of diffusion an
Page 225 and 226: other systems returns little to exp
Page 227 and 228: extent but the coefficient is small
Page 229 and 230: territorial organization and chambe
Page 231 and 232: there are only two (Gabon and Vanua
Page 233 and 234: the rational perspective, since it
Page 235 and 236: 9. CONCLUSIONThis study is a contri
Page 237 and 238: shows that countries having adopted
Page 239 and 240: doubt that electoral systems affect
Page 241 and 242: The third variable within the cultu
Page 243 and 244: 9.4 Final RemarksThe impact of the
Page 245 and 246: APPENDIX IClassification of countri
Page 247 and 248: Sri Lanka - SMP 1948The Constitutio
Page 249 and 250: Laos - SMP-BV 1953Laos achieved ful
Page 251 and 252: Greece - List PR 1958After having a
Page 253 and 254: Madagascar - Super-mixed 1960The 19
Page 255 and 256: Iran - SMP-BV 1963In 1963, Iran ado
Page 257: Polyarchy dataset between 1960 and
Page 261 and 262: APPENDIX IICountry (year of elector
Page 263 and 264: Country Democracy Electoral system
Page 265 and 266: Country Democracy Electoral system
Page 267 and 268: APPENDIX IIICountry (year of electo
Page 269 and 270: Country Colonial Regional Form of T
Page 271 and 272: Country Colonial Regional Form of T
Page 273 and 274: APPENDIX IVParty system fragmentati
Page 275 and 276: Proportional systems - change from
Page 277 and 278: REFERENCESAhmed, Nizam. 2001. “Ba
Page 279 and 280: Blais, André and R. K. Carty. 1987
Page 281 and 282: Duverger, Maurice. 1984. “Which I
Page 283 and 284: Hartmann, Christof. 1999b. “Cote
Page 285 and 286: Koch, Christian. 2001. “Kuwait”
Page 287 and 288: Lijphart, Arend. 2002. “The Wave
Page 289 and 290: Norris, Pippa. 1995. “Introductio
Page 291 and 292: Riker, William H. 1982. “The Two-
Page 293 and 294: Taagepera, Rein and Matthew S. Shug
Page 295: Why have countries in different par
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