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able much earlier; therefore the perspectives raised by our researches are notnew. 12 The incomprehension in white feminist contexts with regard to suchcritical perceptions might lie in the particular history of white feminisms.White feminisms, as Dagmar Schultz reflects, have a history of dealing withpatriarchal structures in order to obtain equal rights in a hegemonic system thattraditionally privileges men over women. 13 Doing so, Schultz shows that sucha perspective obscures the fact that this only applies to white men’s privilegeover white women and does not work in the same way, when it involves men ofcolour and white women. Consequently, white feminists rather identify themselvesas victims of unequal power relations than as people who uphold a position,which is equally involved in power production and the stratification ofclass and ethnical groups. 14 Furthermore, the construction of women as victimsin general needs to be re-visited by white women in order to understand theirstake and participation in discrimination and the reproduction of hegemonicpower. In relation to this, Critical Whiteness theory, by rejecting an essentialidea of womanhood, offers important starting points for teaching CriticalWhiteness Studies in a feminist context. Instead it scrutinizes the differentexperiences of women from varying racialized, ethicized, and religious or classbackgrounds. 15In this context, the German feminist, Protestant theologian Eske Wollradchallenges the common use of the term gender as a category to describe the oppressionof women. From her perspective the term covers up other mechanismsof oppression such as “race” and class. The term “gender”, Wollrad argues, allowwhite women to conveniently avoid the issue of racial discrimination, if theywant to. Women outside white-middle class-feminist spaces are at best invitedto be incorporated. 16 Furthermore, a simple focus on women as victims of patriarchyhinders an understanding of white women’s participation in sexism andthe oppression of men who are marked by ethnicity or class. In a study of whiteGerman women involved in feminist movements, Nora Räthzel shows that thetendency of white women to perceive men as a threat of their security turns outto be particularly detrimental for men of colour. These white women, who all12Wollrad, Weißsein im Widerspruch, 48–9; Stuart Hall, Ideologie, Identität, Repräsentation – Ausgewählte Schriften 4,(Hamburg: Argument Verlag, 2004).13Dagmar Schultz, “Witnessing Whiteness – ein persönliches Zeugnis“, in Mythen, Masken und Subjekte, ed.Eggers, Kilomba, Piesche, Arndt (Münster: Unrast Verlag), 514–29.14Beverley Skeggs, Class, Self, Culture (London: Routledge 2004), 1–2 & 27–44.15Wollrad, Weißsein im Widerspruch, 100–3.16Wollrad, Weißsein im Widerspruch, 102.60
considered themselves as anti-nationalist, claimed to feel threatened by the masculinesexuality of the migrants and hence referred to the nation state as beingresponsible for securing their protection from the migrant men. 17Another reason why the Critical Whiteness perspectives in ourpresentations might have been misunderstood, as the ensuing discussionsrevealed, might lie in the different ways of understanding “race” and racism,ethnic, cultural and religious discrimination in different cultural and nationalcontexts. The fact that the lingua franca at international conferences is Englishand that presentations are given in an interdisciplinary context may contributeto improper translations of terms and terminologies. For instance, the term“race” as used in an Anglo-American context carries different meaning thanin a Danish and German-speaking context, where “race” (Danish: Race/German: Rasse) has been abandoned as a suitable concept in academia. Thereason for this seems that since the end of World War II, it has been provedto be extremely tricky to accuse somebody of being a racist. 18 Andre Gingrichshows in an analysis of the Austrian context that even today the person whoaccuses somebody of being a racist is likely to be in more trouble than theone who is accused. 19 Instead of “race”, Denmark and German-speakingcountries rather employ the concept of Xenophobia (German: Fremdenfeindlichkeit,Danish: Fremmedfjendsk), which refers to neo-conservativeand neo-nationalist tendencies rising with the end of the Cold War andthe influx of migrants from Eastern Europe. 20 Discrimination in this contextis perceived as a problem arising between groups of white people and,therefore, somewhat different from the conventional problem of “racism”.The denotation of Critical Whiteness Studies may also be misunderstoodin a context where the history and presence of Black Austrians, Germans,but also Danes, Norwegians, Swedes, etc. is concealed by the self-image ofseemingly white nations or white Europeans. The imagined national communityof these countries is based on the idea of ethnic homogeneity andis in effect a racist structure because it a priori excludes non-white people. 2117Nora Räthzel, “Nationalism and Gender in West Europe: the German case”, in Crossfires: Nationalism, Racism andGender in Europe, ed. Lutz, Phoenix, Yuval-Davis (London: Pluto Press 1995): 180–1.18Peter Hervik, 149–15519See Andre Gingrich, “Concepts of Race Vanishing, Movements of Racism Rising? Global Issues in an AustrianEthnography”, in ETHNOS (Vol. 69:2, June 2004): 156–176.20Gingrich, 16621See Benedict Anderson, Die Erfindung der Nation – Zur Karriere eines folgenreichen Konzepts (Frankfurt/New York:Reihe Campus).61
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Teaching with the Third WaveNew Fem
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© Åse Bengtsson and Catti Brandel
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“This Is Not Therapy!” 75Un/Exp
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PrefaceThe idea of writing this boo
Page 11 and 12: IntroductionDaniela Gronold, Brigit
Page 13 and 14: Brandelius who is portrayed on the
Page 15 and 16: The institutional context of Women
Page 17: The chapters present new feminist e
Page 20 and 21: IntroductionSecond-wave feminism is
Page 22 and 23: Second-Wave Feminist Generationalit
Page 24 and 25: and conflictual ones), and since th
Page 26 and 27: This allows her to conceptualize a
Page 28 and 29: The Anglo-American and the French t
Page 30 and 31: To traverse the classifications of
Page 32 and 33: ing system without a General and wi
Page 34 and 35: Let me end this chapter by providin
Page 36 and 37: Buikema tells the story of Sarah Ba
Page 38 and 39: Roof, Judith. “Generational Diffi
Page 40 and 41: postmodern capitalism and the impli
Page 42 and 43: European scope and its neoliberal c
Page 44 and 45: front. A strong motivation offered
Page 46 and 47: In her editorial response to Hemmin
Page 48 and 49: Gender Studies’, 28 I agree with
Page 50 and 51: expected to play a central role as
Page 52 and 53: Implications for teaching gender: d
Page 54 and 55: These re- appropriations cannot be
Page 56 and 57: Puig de la Bellacasa, Maria. “Fle
Page 58 and 59: We are both white scholars who grew
Page 60 and 61: mapped in the first part of project
Page 64 and 65: Using the example of Germany Wollra
Page 66 and 67: of a link to already existing stere
Page 68 and 69: The alien’s green colour tells of
Page 70 and 71: Implications of teaching Critical W
Page 72 and 73: ness to people with different backg
Page 74 and 75: theories. This concept can be fruit
Page 76 and 77: Räthzel, Nora. “Nationalism and
Page 78 and 79: nism’ in the classroom. Thus, whi
Page 80 and 81: As a method, memory work focuses on
Page 82 and 83: ence on the teaching. This was beca
Page 84 and 85: when we wanted them to do memory wo
Page 86 and 87: in the consciousness-raising groups
Page 88 and 89: as a therapeutic method, they not o
Page 90 and 91: “Empowerment has, however, someti
Page 92 and 93: fascination with the strong commona
Page 94 and 95: practice”. 43 She explains MacKin
Page 96 and 97: has been exposed to subjection by o
Page 98 and 99: Sebastien, Amanda. “Tendencies in
Page 100 and 101: a historical moment when technologi
Page 102 and 103: As earlier noted, there are certain
Page 104 and 105: new per se, they like Internet-base
Page 106 and 107: where technological and media accou
Page 108 and 109: to avoid binaristic traps, rejectin
Page 110 and 111: ReferencesBraidotti, Rosi. Metamorp
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IntroductionIn 2007, with two other
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WoMen at workIn all, it took us alm
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Facing Uncertainties and Self-quest
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Doctorate degree’s curricula for
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In addition, many feminist academic
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and duties which are seen as comple
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answers adapted to their own profes
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As the form of the message counts a
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ReferencesBlanchard, Soline, Jules
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As the learning outcomes demonstrat
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Within the organizational structure
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Gender-sensitive didactics can be p
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A further dimension is knowledge ab
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Teaching materialsSince language is
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and absences, both short term and p
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The cliché cloakroomSometimes it w
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and goatees, later almost all wante
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Presentations from the working grou
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ConclusionTeachers’ self-reflecti
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Mühlen Achs, Gitta. Geschlecht bew
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Milka Metso, PhD Candidate, Univers
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