Historical Painting Techniques, Materials, and Studio Practice
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Figure 5. Detail IR-reflectogram from Shakyamuni<br />
<strong>and</strong> the Eighteen Arhats, showing<br />
a color code written in Chinese on an Arhat's<br />
back. Los Angeles County Museum of Art,<br />
Los Angeles (M. 83. 105. 18}.<br />
Shakyamuni <strong>and</strong> the Eighteen Arhats, owned by LACMA <strong>and</strong> thought to be<br />
an eighteenth-century work from the Kham region, has color codes on the<br />
ground layer written in Chinese. Unlike the brilliant white magnesite ground<br />
found in the Shambhala paintings, this ground is buff-colored <strong>and</strong> composed<br />
of hydrocerussite <strong>and</strong> kaolinite. Two color-code systems are employed. The<br />
first is numerical: numbers represent specific colors. The second uses Chinese<br />
color names or idioms. Under the dark blue pigment of a begging bowl, IRR<br />
revealed the Chinese character for the number seven. The pigment was identified<br />
by PLM <strong>and</strong> FTIR as azurite. On an Arhat's back, IRR revealed the<br />
Chinese character for hulled rice (Fig. 5). Examination of a dispersed pigment<br />
slide revealed orpiment mixed with a small amount of red lead. A character<br />
not yet translated was uncovered on several deep red colored areas. Examination<br />
of a dispersed pigment slide revealed vermilion mixed with a small<br />
amount of red lead.<br />
Another LACMA painting with Chinese color codes is Palden Remati <strong>and</strong><br />
Her Retinue, accepted as originating from the Gelukpa monastery in Central<br />
Tibet, 1800-1850 C.E. This painting employs the two color-code systems<br />
described earlier with similar notations. The Chinese numbers for three <strong>and</strong><br />
seven were used to denote a light blue color. This color has yet to be sampled.<br />
Presumably "seven" represents azurite <strong>and</strong> "three" represents the second addition<br />
of a white pigment.<br />
Two BMFA paintings displaying Chinese color codes come from a set of five<br />
entitled Stories from the Life of Buddha. The set is thought to be eighteenthcentury<br />
Tibetan. Again, evidence of the two color-code systems described<br />
earlier as well as notations fo r derivative colors were found on these paintings.<br />
The Chinese numbers for two <strong>and</strong> six are used to denote a light green. This<br />
color has yet to be sampled. Presumably "six" represents malachite <strong>and</strong> "two"<br />
the first addition of a white pigment.<br />
Conclusion<br />
Since thangka painting is a tradition passed on from master to apprentice,<br />
determining palette <strong>and</strong> deciphering color-code systems may prove to be<br />
helpful in the identification of specific workshops or painting lineages. The<br />
color-code system used on the BMFA Shambhala paintings has several distinctive<br />
traits. These include an additional character kya (skya) for whitish<br />
tints (Fig. 3) <strong>and</strong> the additional characters na ga (nag) for darker tints. The<br />
artist of the painting A Mahasiddha <strong>and</strong> Taklungpa Lamas indicated whitish<br />
tints with a kya subjoined to the root notation (Fig. 4). This system for<br />
distinguishing derivative colors is similar to one still practiced by some modern<br />
Tibetan thangka painters. The paintings with color codes in Chinese<br />
script pose many questions which are beyond the scope of this paper. In terms<br />
of the ethnic background of the creators of these works, one can only speculate.<br />
Perhaps the painters were Chinese, since a native Tibetan speaker would<br />
be unlikely to write such "private" communications in a fo reign script. On<br />
the other h<strong>and</strong>, a bilingual Tibetan might use Chinese characters to communicate<br />
with Chinese apprentices or coworkers. Likewise, one can only<br />
speculate on whether such paintings were produced in Tibet or China. In<br />
order to answer these questions, more infrared data <strong>and</strong> pigment analyses need<br />
to be compiled from thangkas of known Tibetan as well as Chinese origin.<br />
Acknowledgments<br />
The authors are indebted to the following people at the Museum of Fine Arts,<br />
Boston: Rhona MacBeth, John Robbe, Darielle Mason, Anne Morse, Wu Tung, Arthur<br />
Beale, <strong>and</strong> John Elwood. The authors wish to thank the staff at the Los Angeles<br />
County Museum of Art for their generous support, particularly Victoria Blyth-Hill<br />
<strong>and</strong> John Twilley. For his analytical contributions, the authors are grateful to Arie<br />
Wallert of the Getty Conservation Institute. The authors wish to thank the following<br />
Lamas <strong>and</strong> thangka painters for their help in deciphering color codes: Archung Lama<br />
<strong>and</strong> Gega Lama of Kathm<strong>and</strong>u, Nepal; Megmar, Alex<strong>and</strong>er Kocharov, <strong>and</strong> Chating<br />
Jamyang Lama of Dharamsala, India. For his enthusiasm, support <strong>and</strong> analytical con-<br />
Duffy <strong>and</strong> Elgar 83