Historical Painting Techniques, Materials, and Studio Practice

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J Figure 3. Fluorescence spectrul1'l of red lake pigment on shirt of Adonis. Quantum yields at A em 445 nl1'l to A ex 397 nm and A em 433 nl1'l to A ex 355 rim indicate preSe/1ce of a cochineal dyestuff. microchemical tests and PLM of a sample taken from the area. The other reds in Adonis's tunic and the clothing draped over Venus's seat were of an organic nature. In a sample taken from the seat, an organic colorant was fo und that also showed the presence of a few textile fibers. This led us to believe that the red lake may very well have been a so-called lacca de cimatura de grana. These cimatura lakes were made by an early recycling process. The dyestuffs were precipitated into a pigment lake extracted from red textile clippings or shearings (cimature) from a tailor's workshop. The making of such lakes was a fairly common practice, and its description can be fo und in numerous fifteenth- and fourteenth-century recipe texts (10). The procedure could be performed with most of the available red textiles. The dyestuffs most likely to be found in these lakes are anthraquinone-type dye, such as kermes, cochineal, lac dye, and madder. The analyses by FS and TLC showed the presence of more than one organic colorant; the red appeared to be a mixture. A sample taken from Adonis's garment showed a good match with a library scan of the cochineal standard (Fig. 3). The results were confirmed by chromatography, which also indicated the presence of purpurin, a colorant present in madder type dyestuffs. No spot for alizarin, the major coloring component of common madder (Rubia tinctorum), could be found. Several possible conclusions are indicated: (a) wild madder (Rubia peregrina) was used, (b) a specific technique was used for the dyeing of the original textile, or (c) the alizarin was not fully extracted in the cimatura process. This finding supports the suggestion that the lake was a cimatura de grana-lake, and the painters who extracted the dyestuffs from textile shearings had no control over the actual dyestuff composition. Since they are similar in color, and not readily distinguishable, any madder-dyed textiles could easily have been included in a larger batch cochineal-dyed clippings. Lake pigments are known to dry poorly. It was common practice, therefore, to add ground glass to lakes. Sixteenth-century glass was typically very rich in lead; the lead in the glass would act as a siccative, thus promoting the drying of the paint. An interesting passage in the Paduan manuscript describes the process: "To make lake indigo and lamp-black, dry quickly. Grind them with oil, then take glass ground to a very fine powder, and incorporate with the colors by grinding them together again; and thus, in the space of 24 hours, they will dry" (11). Examination of a microsample of the red lake of Adonis's shirt did, indeed, show the presence of small glass particles. The purplish red of Venus's seat, on the other hand, was made of a mixture of an organic red lake and smalt (Fig. 4). In this case, the smalt had a double function. It gave the carmine lake a more purple color and at the same time acted as a siccative. White pigments. The white pigment found on the painting was lead white. XRF revealed the presence of lead in the sky and in the flesh tints. Polarized Birkmaier, Wallert, and Rothe 123
Titian r&d 91 aZI!;! on aQot 12.1.199:3. 80/5,.. target. 240 SOkV, ::I. grru' eee. AW F. Pb A. Pb Figure 4. XRF spectrum if purple area on seat of Venus. High peaks fo r cobalt and arsenic suggest the presence if smalt. light microscopy of pigment samples taken from those areas showed them to contain birefringent particles with a high refractive index (n> 1.66) that matched lead-white laboratory standard. This conclusion was confirmed by staining cross sections with Lugol stain. X-radiographs of the painting show how Titian used the lead white, particularly to enhance the contrasts in his composition. It helped to make Adonis's silhouette stand out against lighter areas in the sky, and emphasized the reddish blush on the face of Venus against the bright crimson shirt of Adonis (Fig. 5). Figure 5. X-radiograph if Venus and Adonis, showing Titian's use of lead-whitebased highlights. A sample taken from the sky area showed that there was not very much pigment present. The sky appeared to be executed in thin glazes over an anhydrite gesso ground, with the white of the ground showing through. The finding of the lathlike anhydrite particles came as a surprise since anhydrite is generally considered to have been used in more southern areas of Italy. In the Venice region, the dihydrate fo rm was usual. We do not yet have a satisfactory explanation for this. In samples taken from the sky area, a relatively large amount of splintery, isotropic particles with low refractive index (n
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Historical Painting Techniques, Mat
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Contents vii viii Foreword Preface
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Foreword One of the first events or
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The discussions in this volume pres
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Plate 2a, above right. Attributed t
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Plate 4a, above. Jacques Louis Da
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Plate 7a, above. Valerio Mariana da
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Plate 9. Marco Palmezzano, Mystic M
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Plate 13, right. Surya in his Chari
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Plate 16. The Fifth King of Shambha
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Plate 20. Cross section oj Sample 3
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Plate 26, top. Titian, Venus and Ad
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Plate 29. Cross sections of the St.
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Plate 33. Paul Delaroehe, The Execu
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Plate 35, right. Detail Jrom the lo
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Abstract This paper argues for an i
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we find a description of the affini
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2. A Practical Treatise on Painting
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knowledge and understanding of the
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Table 1. Scientific methods used Jo
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the painting together, share backgr
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y distance with "the aid of the air
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ected, shadows would appear matte a
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The differences in saturation, clea
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19. White, R. Personal communicatio
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occupation agreable pour charmer l'
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DE PEJN'FURE PRATIQUE. Par demit::
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In spite of the laments of certain
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While cooking their eggs, two young
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some used for painting (i.e., amber
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ange of artists' materials, books o
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Figure 3. Personal account book, 18
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paper resulted in a volume of corre
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4. HKI MS 865-1993, 497. The move i
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[1] How to make a gold ground. Take
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into a glass, and put in a bit of w
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[37] To make crude verzino for writ
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it on what you are working, with a
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28. On these "clothlet colors," see
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it also includes instructions fo r
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Ricordi di belli colori Initially i
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Figure 4. Gherardo Cibo, "Fusaina [
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The treatise is typical for the lat
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Filza CXLIII, fols. 1122r, 1125v, 1
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that is, plaster of Paris, which ha
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100 80 60 40 a 3500 30.00 2500 2000
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process described by Cennini for ge
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Abstract The frequent use of verdig
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strating that spreading this glaze
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10. Thompson, op. cit., 61. 11. Ber
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Tingry, in 1830, gives a recipe for
Page 106 and 107: elonged to William Mallord Turner (
Page 108 and 109: 500 450 As Ph As 400 350 Fe Co 300
Page 110 and 111: 19. Merrifield, op. cit., 745-6. 20
Page 112 and 113: Table 1. Tibetan color names, trans
Page 114 and 115: J Figure 3. Three-dimensional spect
Page 116 and 117: Figure 5. Detail IR-reflectogram fr
Page 118 and 119: Abstract Icons preserved in the Nil
Page 120 and 121: I )--------------------------1 I i
Page 122 and 123: The understanding of an icon and it
Page 124 and 125: Abstract As part of a five-year sys
Page 126 and 127: later transferred to an artificial
Page 128 and 129: Winchester Cathedral Holy Sepulchre
Page 130 and 131: Gilding. Gold leaf was applied for
Page 132 and 133: Winchester Cathedral Holy Sepulchre
Page 134 and 135: scanning electron microscopy I ener
Page 136 and 137: Notes 1. Park, D. 1983. The wall pa
Page 138 and 139: Abstract It is rare for ancient ext
Page 140 and 141: Sa. Location : Salisbury west front
Page 142 and 143: sheltered eye on the southernmost c
Page 144 and 145: Abstract Extensive examination of A
Page 146 and 147: create surface gloss and could be v
Page 148 and 149: Figure 3. Andrea Mantegl1a, The Pre
Page 150 and 151: Abstract In September 1992 the J Pa
Page 152 and 153: arrow in Adonis's right hand ends a
Page 154 and 155: For the early works are executed wi
Page 158 and 159: This property was deliberately used
Page 160 and 161: Abstract The St. Anne Altarpiece (N
Page 162 and 163: Figure 3. Infrared reJlectogram ass
Page 164 and 165: Figure 5. Irifrared niflectogram as
Page 166 and 167: followed by modeling layers and gla
Page 168 and 169: Abstract Based on extensive informa
Page 170 and 171: o . (Vv..-.< 1 2. underdrawing, and
Page 172 and 173: The key position of Lamentation in
Page 174 and 175: Figure 1. Workshop of Jan Bruegel,
Page 176 and 177: Figure 3. Camelis Vroom, Landscape
Page 178 and 179: Figure 5. Infrared photograph of Es
Page 180 and 181: at the beginning of the seventeenth
Page 182 and 183: artist like Vermeer had to use all
Page 184 and 185: Figure 1. Perspective drawing of Ve
Page 186 and 187: Hague, 1996). The author is also gr
Page 188 and 189: Abstract The paper presents some re
Page 190 and 191: Summary We can conclude after this
Page 192 and 193: the product, a salesman motivated b
Page 194 and 195: complaints, have been strictly adhe
Page 196 and 197: F(gure 8. Illfrared rriflectograph
Page 198 and 199: 13. Hunt, W. H. 1905-1 906. Pre-Rap
Page 200 and 201: Figure 1. The Execution of Lady Jan
Page 202 and 203: Figure 3. The Execution of Lady Jan
Page 204 and 205: Figure 5. Detail of Lady Jal1e Grey
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Figure 6. Paul Delaroche, The Execu
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38. Merimee,J.-F.-L. 1830. De la pe
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F(gure 1. J. M. W. Turner, Goring M
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Figl/re 3. Detail if lower left, s/
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Figure 5. J. M. W. Tumer's The Dawn
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TabLe 1. Dates of manufa cture of i
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Kennedy of the Ulster Museum, Viola
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Figure 2. James Whistler, Nocturne
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5). There are many such examples of
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Abstract This paper discusses aspec
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1960s in North America. Requiring b
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2. Eder, ]. M. 1945. History of Pho
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Figure 1. Jan Baptiste Collaert, Co
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sudden increase in the dimensions o
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lacks. Passages painted with mixtur
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8. It is not clear when people firs
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Errata for Historical Painting Tech
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PAGE 159 Figure 2. Image source: Pe
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