Historical Painting Techniques, Materials, and Studio Practice

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process described by Cennini for gesso sottile as furnishing the best ground for gilding (29). In fact, Cennini describes in Chapter CXVIII how certain panels can be grounded only with gesso sottile. Conclusion Finally, returning to the meaning of the giesso volteriano in Cennini's text, we presume that the material must have been calcium sulfate dihydrate burned at 300-650 °c, thus forming soluble anhydrite, which was used fo r the gesso grosso. The preparation of the gesso sottile would be a process of changing the chemical composition, altering the texture, and washing. The author does not agree with the point of view put forward by E. Martin, et al. that Cennini did not know whether the giesso volteriano he discussed was unburned gypsum directly from the quarries of Volterra or if it was processed by being burned (30). Cennini must have had a good understanding of these materials. That we do not understand the exact meaning of his words 600 years later is another matter. In his own time and geographical sphere, it was most likely very well understood, at least by other craftspersons. Acknowledgments It was extremely difficult to obtain raw calcium sulfate dihydrate in Denmark. I am very much indebted to the following persons who made the practical experiments possible: V Meyer (Building Materials, Kalkbr;enderihavnsgade 20, 2100 Copenhagen), who readily took the trouble to import unburned gypsum for my research purposes, and to Niels Erik Jensen (CTO, Aiborg Portland, 9220 Aiborg 0st), who demonstrated a keen interest and readiness to help with this project by providing me with raw gypsum in various forms. I wish to thank my colleague, chemist Mads Chr. Christensen (School of Conservation, Copenhagen) fo r his help in carrying out the analyses, and for fruitful discussions. My colleague, geologist Nicoline Kalsbeek, (School of Conservation), has kindly furnished me with information from the Cambridge Structural Database. Finally, I wish to thank Professor Bo Ossian Lindberg (Institutionen fOr Konstvetenskap, University of Lund, Sweden) for reading and commenting on the text. Notes 1. Cennini, C. 1960. The Craftsman's Handbook: II libro de/l'arte. Translated by D. V Thompson, Jr.. New Yo rk, Dover Reprint (Yale University Press, 1933). 2. Cennini, C. Boken om nullarkonsten. Oversiittning och notkommentar av Ossian Lindberg. Unpublished manuscript provided by Professor Lindberg. Part of the text has been published in Lindberg, B. 0. 1991. Antologi om milleriteknik. Lund: Institutionen fo r Konstvetenskap, Lunds Universitet. As shown by Lindberg, the Codex Laurentianus (Florence, Biblioteca Laurentiana, MS 78 P 23) must be considered closest to the lost original manuscript. The Codex Riccardianus (Florence, Biblioteca Riccardiana, MS 2190), however, is our only source for several passages which are missing in the Laurentianus text. Therefore, Lindberg based his edition on both the Laurentianus and the Riccardianus codices, as Thompson also did. For the discussion of the surviving transcripts of Cennini's text and the various editions and translations, see Lindberg, B. 0. 1991. Cennino Cennini: den obnde masteren. In Miliningens anatomi. Exhibition catalogue. Kuituren, Lund, 39-48. 3. Oddy, W A. 1981. Gilding through the ages: An outline history of the process in the Old World. Gold Bulletin and Gold Patent Digest (14): 75-79, in particular page 77. See also, Gilded wood: conservation and history. 1991. Gilding Conservation Symposium, Philadelphia Museum oj Art. Madison, Sound View Press, 34. 4. Berger, E. 1973. Quellen und Technik der Fresko-, Oel-und Temperamalerei des Mittelalters. Liechtenstein Sandig reprint (Munich 1912), 13. 5. The medieval sources mentioning the preparation of grounds also mention (animal) glue as the medium. The only exception, to my knowledge, is the fifteenthcentury Bolognese manuscript, which mentions a ground that apparently has no medium but depends on the setting with water of the hernihydrite. See Merrifield, M. P 1849. Segreti per colori, Original treatises on the arts oj painting, Vol. II. London, John Murray, 595. 6. Martin, E., N. Sonoda, and A. R. Duval. 1992. Contribution a l'etude des preparations blanches des tableaux italiens sur bois. Studies in Conservation (37): 82- Federspiel 63
92. The fifty paintings examined by the authors reveal a clear trend. Paintings belonging to the Florentine and Sienese schools showed double-structured grounds of gesso grosso and gesso sottile, identified respectively as anhydrite and dihydrate. Venetian examples showed a tendency towards single-structured grounds consisting only of dihydrate, as also observed in Gettens, R. E. and M. E. Mrose. 1954. Calcium sulphate minerals in the grounds of Italian paintings. Studies in Conservation (1):174-90. See in particular pages 180-83. The recent French examination finds that the examined paintings representing schools outside Tuscany are not numerous enough in their material to conclude anything general about the treatment of grounds in the rest of Italy. 7. See note 2. 8. The wording of the Codex Laurentianus is quoted from Lindberg, B. 0. 1990. Feta och magra limmer enligt Cennino Cennini. In Meddelelser om Konservering, 165-87. Lindberg notes that the Codex Riccardianus in this passage has a slightly different, but not clearer wording than the Laurentianus. Lindberg points to the fact that the manuscript lacks interior punctuation. 9. Cennini, 1960. Op. cit., 70. 10. Unfortunately, this suggestion by Thompson, which in the author's opinion is wrong, is apparently reflected in numerous texts on medieval grounds. See, for instance, Straub, R. E. 1984. Tafel-und Tiichleinmalerei des Mittelalters. In Reclams Handbuch der kiinstlerischen Techniken, Vol. I. Stuttgart Philipp Reclam, 156- 57. 11. See note 8. 12. The various sources on gypsum are obviously not identical in their information on the relationship between the chemical composition of the gypsum and burning temperatures. Rompps Chemielexicon. 1979. Stuttgart, 575-76. See also, Mora, L., P. Mora, and P. Philippot. 1984. The Conservation of Wallpaintings. London, Butterworth, 39-47. Also see The Merck Index, 9th ed. 1976, 1707. 13. Mora, et aI., op. cit. (note 12), 42. 14. Lindberg, B. 0. , and B. Skans, in their experiments carried out at Institutionen fo r Konstvetenskap i Lund, have also observed that gypsum burned at 300 °C fo r two hours is still able to react with water. Lindberg, B. 0. , and B. Skans. 1990. Feta och magra limmar enligt Cennino. In Meddelelser om konservering, 184. 15. See note 12. 16. Gettens, R. J. 1954. A visit to an ancient gypsum quarry in Tuscany. Studies in Conservation (1):4, 190-92. 17. Gettens and Mrose, 1954. Op. cit., (note 6), 185. 18. Theophilus on Divers Arts. 1979. Translated by G. Hawthorne and C. S. Smith. New York, Dover Reprints, 27. 19. A History of Technology, Vol. II. 1957. Oxford, The Clarendon Press, 118. 20. The Painter's Manual of Dionysius of Fourna. 1978. Translated by P. Hetherington. London, 6. It appears from the directions in the Athos book, that right from the mining, it is important to choose the right kind of gypsum: " . .. see that you use only what is white and glistening." 21. Lindberg, 1990. Op. cit. (note 8), 184. 22. See note 6. 23. Bomford, D., J. Dunkerton, D. Gordon, A. Roy, and J. Kirby. 1990. Art in the Making. London, National Gallery. See in particular pages 17-19. 24. Martin, Sonoda, and Duval, 1992. Op. cit., 86-89, Table 2. 25. It must, of course, be below 650 °C, which is the limit beyond which the anhydrite is no longer able to react with water. 26. Martin, Sonoda, and Duval, 1992. Op. cit., 90. See also Dunkerton, J., and A. Roy. 1986. The Technique and Restoration on Cima's The Incredulity if S. Thomas. National Gallery Technical Bulletin (10) :4-27, especially page 5. See also Dunkerton, J., A. Roy, and A. Smith, A. 1987. The unmasking of Tura's "allegorical figure": A painting and its concealed image. National Gallery Technical Bulletin (11):5-35, especially 19. 27. If a different crystal structure had existed fo r the dihydrate it would most likely have been included in the CSD (Cambridge Structural Database). This is not the case. 28. It was quite obvious that not only was the burned gypsum (the anhydrite) much easier to grind than the raw gypsum, but the anhydrite burned at 700 °C was much easier to grind than the anhydrite burned at 400 0c. 29. Cennini, 1960. Op. cit., 73. 30. Martin, Sonoda, and Duval, 1992. Op. cit., 90 64 Historical Painting Techniques, Materials, and Studio Practice
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Historical Painting Techniques, Mat
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Contents vii viii Foreword Preface
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Foreword One of the first events or
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The discussions in this volume pres
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Plate 2a, above right. Attributed t
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Plate 4a, above. Jacques Louis Da
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Plate 7a, above. Valerio Mariana da
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Plate 9. Marco Palmezzano, Mystic M
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Plate 13, right. Surya in his Chari
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Plate 16. The Fifth King of Shambha
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Plate 20. Cross section oj Sample 3
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Plate 26, top. Titian, Venus and Ad
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Plate 29. Cross sections of the St.
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Plate 33. Paul Delaroehe, The Execu
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Plate 35, right. Detail Jrom the lo
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Abstract This paper argues for an i
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we find a description of the affini
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2. A Practical Treatise on Painting
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knowledge and understanding of the
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Table 1. Scientific methods used Jo
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the painting together, share backgr
Page 46 and 47: y distance with "the aid of the air
Page 48 and 49: ected, shadows would appear matte a
Page 50 and 51: The differences in saturation, clea
Page 52 and 53: 19. White, R. Personal communicatio
Page 54 and 55: occupation agreable pour charmer l'
Page 56 and 57: DE PEJN'FURE PRATIQUE. Par demit::
Page 58 and 59: In spite of the laments of certain
Page 60 and 61: While cooking their eggs, two young
Page 62 and 63: some used for painting (i.e., amber
Page 64 and 65: ange of artists' materials, books o
Page 66 and 67: Figure 3. Personal account book, 18
Page 68 and 69: paper resulted in a volume of corre
Page 70 and 71: 4. HKI MS 865-1993, 497. The move i
Page 72 and 73: [1] How to make a gold ground. Take
Page 74 and 75: into a glass, and put in a bit of w
Page 76 and 77: [37] To make crude verzino for writ
Page 78 and 79: it on what you are working, with a
Page 80 and 81: 28. On these "clothlet colors," see
Page 82 and 83: it also includes instructions fo r
Page 84 and 85: Ricordi di belli colori Initially i
Page 86 and 87: Figure 4. Gherardo Cibo, "Fusaina [
Page 88 and 89: The treatise is typical for the lat
Page 90 and 91: Filza CXLIII, fols. 1122r, 1125v, 1
Page 92 and 93: that is, plaster of Paris, which ha
Page 94 and 95: 100 80 60 40 a 3500 30.00 2500 2000
Page 98 and 99: Abstract The frequent use of verdig
Page 100 and 101: strating that spreading this glaze
Page 102 and 103: 10. Thompson, op. cit., 61. 11. Ber
Page 104 and 105: Tingry, in 1830, gives a recipe for
Page 106 and 107: elonged to William Mallord Turner (
Page 108 and 109: 500 450 As Ph As 400 350 Fe Co 300
Page 110 and 111: 19. Merrifield, op. cit., 745-6. 20
Page 112 and 113: Table 1. Tibetan color names, trans
Page 114 and 115: J Figure 3. Three-dimensional spect
Page 116 and 117: Figure 5. Detail IR-reflectogram fr
Page 118 and 119: Abstract Icons preserved in the Nil
Page 120 and 121: I )--------------------------1 I i
Page 122 and 123: The understanding of an icon and it
Page 124 and 125: Abstract As part of a five-year sys
Page 126 and 127: later transferred to an artificial
Page 128 and 129: Winchester Cathedral Holy Sepulchre
Page 130 and 131: Gilding. Gold leaf was applied for
Page 132 and 133: Winchester Cathedral Holy Sepulchre
Page 134 and 135: scanning electron microscopy I ener
Page 136 and 137: Notes 1. Park, D. 1983. The wall pa
Page 138 and 139: Abstract It is rare for ancient ext
Page 140 and 141: Sa. Location : Salisbury west front
Page 142 and 143: sheltered eye on the southernmost c
Page 144 and 145: Abstract Extensive examination of A
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create surface gloss and could be v
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Figure 3. Andrea Mantegl1a, The Pre
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Abstract In September 1992 the J Pa
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arrow in Adonis's right hand ends a
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For the early works are executed wi
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J Figure 3. Fluorescence spectrul1'
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This property was deliberately used
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Abstract The St. Anne Altarpiece (N
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Figure 3. Infrared reJlectogram ass
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Figure 5. Irifrared niflectogram as
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followed by modeling layers and gla
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Abstract Based on extensive informa
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o . (Vv..-.< 1 2. underdrawing, and
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The key position of Lamentation in
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Figure 1. Workshop of Jan Bruegel,
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Figure 3. Camelis Vroom, Landscape
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Figure 5. Infrared photograph of Es
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at the beginning of the seventeenth
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artist like Vermeer had to use all
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Figure 1. Perspective drawing of Ve
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Hague, 1996). The author is also gr
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Abstract The paper presents some re
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Summary We can conclude after this
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the product, a salesman motivated b
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complaints, have been strictly adhe
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F(gure 8. Illfrared rriflectograph
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13. Hunt, W. H. 1905-1 906. Pre-Rap
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Figure 1. The Execution of Lady Jan
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Figure 3. The Execution of Lady Jan
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Figure 5. Detail of Lady Jal1e Grey
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Figure 6. Paul Delaroche, The Execu
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38. Merimee,J.-F.-L. 1830. De la pe
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F(gure 1. J. M. W. Turner, Goring M
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Figl/re 3. Detail if lower left, s/
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Figure 5. J. M. W. Tumer's The Dawn
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TabLe 1. Dates of manufa cture of i
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Kennedy of the Ulster Museum, Viola
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Figure 2. James Whistler, Nocturne
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5). There are many such examples of
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Abstract This paper discusses aspec
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1960s in North America. Requiring b
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2. Eder, ]. M. 1945. History of Pho
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Figure 1. Jan Baptiste Collaert, Co
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sudden increase in the dimensions o
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lacks. Passages painted with mixtur
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8. It is not clear when people firs
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Errata for Historical Painting Tech
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PAGE 159 Figure 2. Image source: Pe
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