Principios de Taxonomia

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3.11 The Relational Properties of the Members of a Species are the Essence of the Speciesj65 The descent cohesion and gene flow relation between organisms makes an organism a member of its species. Any particular organism belongs to a species because its species affiliation depends ontologically on the existence of other species members. Every organism that is excluded from the gene-flow community and is therefore separated from the other organisms is not a member of this species. Vice versa, every organism that is part of the gene-flow community and is thus connected to the other organisms must belong to this species. This realization compels one to accept that there is an essential species affiliation. However, it is not an essence based on intrinsic traits, but an essence based on relational connections. Why should the application of the philosophical concept of an essence be restricted to intrinsic traits only? Nothing compels one to restrict applying the concept of essence to traits only (Okasha, 2002). The integration into a gene-flow community is a necessary and sufficient condition for an organism s species affiliation. Authors from Aristotle to Linnaeus to some more modern authors (Putnam, 1975 and Kripke, 1980) took the view that species essences had to be intrinsic traits of the species members, with the consequence of the biological species being treated as universal. Darwin s theory of evolution put an end to this view, after which species essentialism was called untenable (Dupre, 1999). Okasha (2002), on the other hand, has once more taken up species essentialism by breaking the connection between the concepts essential and intrinsic trait. Instead, he presents the idea that species essentialism could be based on relational connections.
4 What are Traits in Taxonomy? 4.1 Preliminary Note The laws of evolution determine how biological species originate, and these laws do not imply that the members of different species all must differ diagnostically to the human eye. The laws of evolution also do not imply that members of the same species have to be trait-identical (Ghiselin, 2002). Different species may be phenotypically very similar in traits or they may be very different (see several of the Color Plates). Similarly looking species are called cryptic species (Mayr and Ashlock, 1991). The remarkable phenomenon of mimicry includes many examples for cryptic species (Wickler, 1968). Mimicry is the adoption by one animal species of the phenotypic traits of another animal species in order to be protected from predators. This phenomenon results in the evolution of parallel phenotypes between animal species that are not phylogenetically related with one another. If one species (the mimic species) is palatable to predators, whereas an equally appearing animal species (the model) is distasteful, the mimic will be mistaken by the predator for the unpalatable model. This scenario is called Batesian mimicry (Color Plate 2). If the individuals of two phylogenetically unrelated species are both unpalatable to predators, there is a selective advantage for the convergent evolution of similar phenotypes, because once the predator has tasted one individual, it will avoid both species in the future, since both have the same warning coloration and therefore will be protected. This scenario is called M€ullerian mimicry (Color Plate 3). Conversely to cryptic species, there are also polytypic species. Polytypic species are species whose members have distinctly different traits. Nevertheless, they are considered to belong to one and the same species because they are not reproductively separated from each other (Chapter 6). These few examples make obvious that it is impossible to define the biological species by its traits. The biological species does not possess a single trait that would be necessary and sufficient for species membership (Okasha, 2002). Do Species Exist? Principles of Taxonomic Classification, First Edition. Werner Kunz. Ó 2012 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. Published 2012 by Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. j67
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Werner Kunz Do Species Exist?
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Werner Kunz Do Species Exist? Princ
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Contents Foreword XI Preface XV Col
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5.5 Are Carrion Crow and Hooded Cro
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7.8 Gene Trees are not Species Tree
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XIIj Foreword formed out in various
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Preface What is water? You would no
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Color Plates Do Species Exist? Prin
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Color PlatesjXIX
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Color PlatesjXXI
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Color PlatesjXXIII
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Color PlatesjXXV
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Color PlatesjXXVII
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Color PlatesjXXIX
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Color PlatesjXXXI
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Color PlatesjXXXIII
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230j Scientific Terms Autapomorphy
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232j Scientific Terms Gene-flow com
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234j Scientific Terms Monophylum A
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236j Scientific Terms barriers prev
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238j Scientific Terms Universal Uni
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2j Introduction would be sufficient
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4j Introduction A number of the col
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6j 1 Are Species Constructs of the
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2 Why is there a Species Problem? 2
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2.2 Can Species be Defined and Deli
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2.3 What Makes Biological Species s
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Page 58 and 59: 2.4 Species: To Exist, or not to Ex
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Page 62 and 63: 2.6 The Constant Change in Evolutio
Page 64 and 65: 2.7 Can a Scientist Work with a Spe
Page 66 and 67: 2.8 The Species as an Intuitive Con
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Page 70 and 71: 2.9 Taxonomy s Status as a Soft or
Page 72 and 73: 2.11 Sociological Consequences of a
Page 74 and 75: Races are not populations of indivi
Page 76 and 77: 2.12 Species Pluralism: How Many Sp
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Page 80 and 81: 2.13 It is One Thing to Identify a
Page 82 and 83: 2.14 The Dualism of the Species Con
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Page 86 and 87: 3 Is the Biological Species a Class
Page 88 and 89: 3.2 Class Formation and Relational
Page 90 and 91: 3.3 Is the Biological Species a Uni
Page 92 and 93: 3.4 The Difference Between a Group
Page 94 and 95: 3.4 The Difference Between a Group
Page 96 and 97: 3.5 Artificial Classes and Natural
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Page 100 and 101: 3.7 The Biological Species as a Hom
Page 102 and 103: 3.9 The Linnaean System is Based on
Page 104 and 105: 3.10 Comparison of the System of Or
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Page 140 and 141: 100j 5 Diversity within the Species
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116j 5 Diversity within the Species
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128j 6 Biological Species as a Gene
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7 The Cohesion of Organisms Through
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7.2 The Problem of Displaying the P
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level of organisms with the next-hi
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Figure 7.4 Classification of organi
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7.4 How is a Cladistic Bifurcation
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7.5 Descent is not the Same Thing a
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Figure 7.7 Paraphyletic classificat
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7.6 Why are Paraphyla used Despite
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Figure 7.8 Phylogenetic trees at di
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Figure 7.10 Gene trees are not spec
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7.9 The Concepts of Monophyly and P
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7.10 Paraphyly and Anagenesis are M
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7.11 The Cladistic Bifurcation of a
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7.12 The Phylocode j213 Thus, if th
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7.12 The Phylocode j215 Figure 7.13
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8 Outlook What is a species? The an
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Index a aberration 96 Acinonyx juba
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essence 45, 46, 56, 58, 64, 65 esse
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Old World Ruddy Duck 150 Old World
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v vague boundaries 21, 184 vaguenes
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Principios de Taxonomia

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