an investigation into the antibacterial activities of medicinal plants ...

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The four different Gram-negative bacteria selected for in vitro antibacterial testing in this study included Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Acinetobacter baumanii, Proteus mirabilis and Klebsiella pneumoniae (Table 2). P. aeruginosa was reported as being one of the most common bacteria causing infection in burn wounds (Ugburo et al., 2004; Mayhall, 2003; Collier, 2004). P. aeruginosa is an opportunistic, environmental pathogen and may contaminate the floors, bed rails, sinks of hospitals, and hands of health care workers. Burn wounds infected with P. aeruginosa may be difficult to control and eradicate, due to multiresistance to antimicrobial agents (Mayhall, 2003; Arslan et al., 1999). The virulence factors of P. aeruginosa, such as protease & exotoxins, promote infection and the dissemination of infection (Table 2) (Kanchanapoom & Khardori, 1999). The non-fermenting A. baumanii is an opportunistic, environmental pathogen with a high survival rate in various environmental locations that may facilitate the development of nosocomial infections. A. baumanii has been isolated from different locations especially in the hospital environment including pillows, washcloths, telephone handles, pasteurised milk and ventilators (Greenwood et al., 1997). The ability of A. baumanii to develop antimicrobial resistance with extreme rapidity makes it difficult to control and eradicate using routine antibiotics (Kanchanapoom & Khardori, 2002). Both P. mirabilis and K. pneumoniae are opportunistic pathogens that may result in nosocomial infections (Table 2). P. mirabilis and K. pneumoniae form part of the normal intestinal flora that may predispose burn wounds to infection (Greenwood et al., 1997). The virulence factors of P. mirabilis and K. pneumoniae include peritrichous flagella and large mucoid capsules, respectively. The bacteria selected for antimicrobial investigation have different virulence mechanisms influencing the outcome of a wound infection. A summary of the selected bacteria commonly associated with burn wound infections and their microbial characteristics are displayed in Table 2. 34
TABLE 2 Summary of the selected test bacteria and their microbial characteristics Microbial Virulence & Associated References: characteristics: microbial factors: infections: Gram-positive bacteria: Staphylococcus aureus normal commensal staphylococcal & membrane- skin infections, wound infection (Greenwood et al., 1997; coagulase +ve, catalase +ve damaging toxins eg. protease, toxic shock, septiceamia etc. Nester et al., 2004) hyaluronidase, coagulase etc. methicillin-resistant occasional nose flora penicillinase which aid wound infection in severe burns (Greenwood et al., 1997; Staphylococcus aureus coagulase +ve, catalase +ve resistance & toxins eg. protease, septiceamia & skin infections Bagdonas, 2003) coagulase, hyaluronidase etc. Streptococcus pyogenes Lancefield group A streptococcal toxins & wound infection, tonsillitis, (Greenwood et al., 1997; beta-hemolysis, bacitracin enzymes eg. hemolysin, impetigo & septiceamia Bowler et al ., 2001; sensitivity & catalase -ve protease, streptokinase. Nester et al ., 2004) Enterococcus feacalis Lancefield group D widespread antimicrobial nosocomial infections, skin & (Greenwood et al., 1997; opportunistic pathogen resistance eg. vancomycin wound infections, bacteremia Kanchanapoom & normal intestinal flora & resistant enterococci (VRE) Khardori, 2002) aesculin bile salt +ve Gram-negative bacteria: Pseudomonas aeruginosa opportunistic pathogen innate antimicrobial resistance, nosocomial infections, burn (Greenwood et al., 1997; environmental pathogen toxins & enzymes eg. wound infections & cystic fibrosis Bowler et al ., 2001; oxidase +ve protease & exotoxins. Arslan et al ., 1999) Acinetobacter baumanii opportunistic pathogen intrinsic resistance to many nosocomial infections, burn (Greenwood et al., 1997; environmental pathogen antibiotics, endotoxins wound infection & bactereamia Kanchanapoom & oxidase -ve Khardori, 2002) Proteus mirabilis opportunistic pathogen peritrichous flagella & nosocomial infections, burn wound (Greenwood et al., 1997; normal intestinal flora endotoxins infection & urinary tract infections Arslan et al ., 1999) swarming on blood agar & indole -ve & urease +ve Klebsiella pneumoniae opportunistic pathogen natural resistance to nosocomial infections, burn wound (Greenwood et al., 1997; normal intestinal flora most penicillins infection & sepsis in Arslan et al ., 1999) mucoid colonies on agar large mucoid capsule surgical wounds. indole -ve & urease +ve endotoxins 35
Page 1 and 2: AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE ANTIBACTE
Page 3 and 4: 2.2.3.1 Bulbine frutescens 21 2.2.3
Page 5 and 6: ABSTRACT Traditional medicine has a
Page 7 and 8: ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to di
Page 9 and 10: H hr hour I INT p-iodonitrotetrazol
Page 11 and 12: LIST OF TABLES TABLES Page TABLE 1
Page 13 and 14: LIST OF FIGURES FIGURES Page FIGURE
Page 15 and 16: CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Overview
Page 17 and 18: In the rural communities where ther
Page 19 and 20: CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 TRA
Page 21 and 22: uses of medicinal plants (Matsiliza
Page 23 and 24: under strict quality control measur
Page 25 and 26: The utilization and identification
Page 27 and 28: 2.2.1.2 Phytomedicine and phytochem
Page 29 and 30: 2.2.1.3 Conservation of medicinal p
Page 31 and 32: interactions (Peoples Medical Socie
Page 33 and 34: Some of the medicinal plants invest
Page 35 and 36: 2.2.3.1 Bulbine frutescens Bulbine
Page 37 and 38: 2.2.3.4 Zantedeschia aethiopica Thi
Page 39 and 40: 2.3 TOPICAL BURN WOUND INFECTIONS 2
Page 41 and 42: p. 386). The process of wound heali
Page 43 and 44: techniques especially when handling
Page 45 and 46: ody warm to prevent hypothermia, es
Page 47: 2.3.3 Bacteria selected for investi
Page 51 and 52: extremely difficult to control. Res
Page 53 and 54: 2001), the traditional method of pr
Page 55 and 56: Step 1: EXTRACTION: Fresh medicinal
Page 57 and 58: different steps performed to obtain
Page 59 and 60: 4.2.2 Traditional preparations Besi
Page 61 and 62: Twofold serial dilutions were made
Page 63 and 64: microtitre plate assay. Following p
Page 65 and 66: Plates supplemented with PNPG No PN
Page 67 and 68: CHAPTER 5 RESULTS Different solvent
Page 69 and 70: Undiluted plant extract concentrati
Page 71 and 72: number of bacterial strains of whic
Page 73 and 74: 59 TABLE 6 Continues: S. pyogenes [
Page 75 and 76: The different extracts of B. frutes
Page 77 and 78: TABLE 7 Bacteria tested: Screening
Page 79 and 80: 5.1.5 Standard antimicrobial sensit
Page 81 and 82: TABLE 8a Standard antimicrobial sen
Page 83 and 84: 5.1.6 Plant extract dilutions that
Page 85 and 86: The extracts of L. leonurus inhibit
Page 87 and 88: TABLE 9a Representation of the extr
Page 89 and 90: The lowest MIC’s of B. frutescens
Page 91 and 92: 5.1.8 The number of bacterial strai
Page 93 and 94: displayed antibacterial activity ag
Page 95 and 96: TABLE 12 Medicinal plants: Antibact
Page 97 and 98: 5.2.2 Antibacterial activity of tra
Page 99 and 100:
Controls S. aureus [no. 1] K. pneum
Page 101 and 102:
The growing threat and spread of an
Page 103 and 104:
was presented for extraction as a s
Page 105 and 106:
aethiopica inhibited a maximum of 1
Page 107 and 108:
the agar dilution assay (Table 12 &
Page 109 and 110:
Further testing on the plant extrac
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Brantner, A. & Grein, E. (1994). An
Page 113 and 114:
Greenwood, D., Slack, R.C. & Peuthe
Page 115 and 116:
Matsiliza, B. & Barker, N.P. (2001)
Page 117 and 118:
Shale, T.L., Stirk, W.A., and van S
Page 119:
http://gardening.worldonline.co.za/
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