Rotorcraft Flying Handbook, FAA-H-8083-21

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incorporated to prevent excessive voltage, which may damage the electrical components. The bus bar serves to distribute the current to the various electrical components of the helicopter. A battery is mainly used for starting the engine. In addition, it permits limited operation of electrical components, such as radios and lights, without the engine running. The battery is also a valuable source of standby or emergency electrical power in the event of alternator or generator failure. An ammeter or loadmeter is used to monitor the electrical current within the system. The ammeter reflects current flowing to and from the battery. A charging ammeter indicates that the battery is being charged. This is normal after an engine start since the battery power used in starting is being replaced. After the battery is charged, the ammeter should stabilize near zero since the alternator or generator is supplying the electrical needs of the system. A discharging ammeter means the electrical load is exceeding the output of the alternator or generator, and the battery is helping to supply electrical power. This may mean the alternator or generator is malfunctioning, or the electrical load is excessive. A loadmeter displays the load placed on the alternator or generator by the electrical equipment. The RFM for a particular helicopter shows the normal load to expect. Loss of the alternator or generator causes the loadmeter to indicate zero. Electrical switches are used to select electrical components. Power may be supplied directly to the component or to a relay, which in turn provides power to the component. Relays are used when high current and/or heavy electrical cables are required for a particular component, which may exceed the capacity of the switch. Circuit breakers or fuses are used to protect various electrical components from overload. A circuit breaker pops out when its respective component is overloaded. The circuit breaker may be reset by pushing it back in, unless a short or the overload still exists. In this case, the circuit breaker continues to pop, indicating an electrical malfunction. A fuse simply burns out when it is overloaded and needs to be replaced. Manufacturers usually provide a holder for spare fuses in the event one has to be replaced in flight. Caution lights on the instrument panel may be installed to show the malfunction of an electrical component. HYDRAULICS Most helicopters, other than smaller piston powered helicopters, incorporate the use of hydraulic actuators to overcome high control forces. [Figure 5-13] A typical hydraulic system consists of actuators, also called Vent Reservoir Pump Pressure Regulator Valve Quick Disconnects Solenoid Valve Servo Actuator, Lateral Cyclic Servo Actuator, Fore and Aft Cyclic Servo Actuator, Collective Scupper Drain Filter Pressure Return Supply Rotor Control Pilot Input Figure 5-13. A typical hydraulic system for helicopters in the light to medium range is shown here. 5-9
servos, on each flight control, a pump which is usually driven by the main rotor gearbox, and a reservoir to store the hydraulic fluid. A switch in the cockpit can turn the system off, although it is left on under normal conditions. A pressure indicator in the cockpit may also be installed to monitor the system. When you make a control input, the servo is activated and provides an assisting force to move the respective flight control, thus lightening the force required by the pilot. These boosted flight controls ease pilot workload and fatigue. In the event of hydraulic system failure, you are still able to control the helicopter, but the control forces will be very heavy. In those helicopters where the control forces are so high that they cannot be moved without hydraulic assistance, two or more independent hydraulic systems may be installed. Some helicopters use hydraulic accumulators to store pressure, which can be used for a short period of time in an emergency if the hydraulic pump fails. This gives you enough time to land the helicopter with normal control STABILITY AUGMENTATIONS SYSTEMS Some helicopters incorporate stability augmentations systems (SAS) to aid in stabilizing the helicopter in flight and in a hover. The simplest of these systems is a force trim system, which uses a magnetic clutch and springs to hold the cyclic control in the position where it was released. More advanced systems use electric servos that actually move the flight controls. These servos receive control commands from a computer that senses helicopter attitude. Other inputs, such as heading, speed, altitude, and navigation information may be supplied to the computer to form a complete autopilot system. The SAS may be overridden or disconnected by the pilot at any time. Stability augmentation systems reduce pilot workload by improving basic aircraft control harmony and decreasing disturbances. These systems are very useful when you are required to perform other duties, such as sling loading and search and rescue operations. AUTOPILOT Helicopter autopilot systems are similar to stability augmentations systems except they have additional features. An autopilot can actually fly the helicopter and perform certain functions selected by the pilot. These functions depend on the type of autopilot and systems installed in the helicopter. The most common functions are altitude and heading hold. Some more advanced systems include a vertical speed or indicated airspeed (IAS) hold mode, where a constant rate of climb/descent or indicated airspeed is maintained by the autopilot. Some autopilots have navigation capabilities, such as VOR, ILS, and GPS intercept and tracking, which is especially useful in IFR conditions. The most advanced autopilots can fly an instrument approach to a hover without any additional pilot input once the initial functions have been selected. The autopilot system consists of electric actuators or servos connected to the flight controls. The number and location of these servos depends on the type of system installed. A two-axis autopilot controls the helicopter in pitch and roll; one servo controls fore and aft cyclic, and another controls left and right cyclic. A three-axis autopilot has an additional servo connected to the antitorque pedals and controls the helicopter in yaw. A four-axis system uses a fourth servo which controls the collective. These servos move the respective flight controls when they receive control commands from a central computer. This computer receives data input from the flight instruments for attitude reference and from the navigation equipment for navigation and tracking reference. An autopilot has a control panel in the cockpit that allows you to select the desired functions, as well as engage the autopilot. For safety purposes, an automatic disengage feature is usually included which automatically disconnects the autopilot in heavy turbulence or when extreme flight attitudes are reached. Even though all autopilots can be overridden by the pilot, there is also an autopilot disengage button located on the cyclic or collective which allows you to completely disengage the autopilot without removing your hands from the controls. Because autopilot systems and installations differ from one helicopter to another, it is very important that you refer to the autopilot operating procedures located in the <strong>Rotorcraft</strong> Flight Manual. ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS Heating and cooling for the helicopter cabin can be provided in different ways. The simplest form of cooling is ram air cooling. Air ducts in the front or sides of the helicopter are opened or closed by the pilot to let ram air into the cabin. This system is limited as it requires forward airspeed to provide airflow and also VOR—Ground-based navigation system consisting of very high frequency omnidirectional range (VOR) stations which provide course guidance. ILS (Instrument Landing System)—A precision instrument approach system, which normally consists of the following electronic components and visual aids: localizer, glide slope, outer marker, and approach lights. GPS (Global Positioning System)—A satellite-based radio positioning, navigation, and time-transfer system. IFR (Instrument Flight Rules)—Rules that govern the procedure for conducting flight in weather conditions below VFR weather minimums. The term IFR also is used to define weather conditions and the type of flight plan under which an aircraft is operating. 5-10
Page 2: ROTORCRAFT FLYING HANDBOOK 2000 U.S
Page 6 and 7: HELICOPTER Chapter 1—Introduction
Page 8 and 9: Technique..........................
Page 10 and 11: Collision Avoidance at Night.......
Page 12 and 13: Helicopters come in many sizes and
Page 14 and 15: Main Rotor Wake Air Jet Downwash Li
Page 16 and 17: There are four forces acting on a h
Page 18 and 19: Increased Local Velocity (Decreased
Page 20 and 21: Load Factor - "G's" 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
Page 22 and 23: Once a helicopter leaves the ground
Page 24 and 25: otation and blade deceleration take
Page 26 and 27: lift and thrust are greater than we
Page 28 and 29: Relative Wind Retreating Side Blade
Page 30 and 31: Bank Angle Vertical Component of Li
Page 32 and 33: percent of the radius. In the drive
Page 34 and 35: Note: In this chapter, it is assume
Page 36 and 37: The rotor disc tilts in the directi
Page 38 and 39: By knowing the various systems on a
Page 40 and 41: If the first and second stage turbi
Page 42 and 43: The horizontal hinge, called the fl
Page 44 and 45: RECIPROCATING ENGINES Fuel is deliv
Page 48 and 49: depends on the temperature of the o
Page 50 and 51: Title 14 of the Code of Federal Reg
Page 52 and 53: l0 5 l5 20 25 30 35 MANIFOLD PRESSU
Page 54 and 55: It is vital to comply with weight a
Page 56 and 57: sive forward displacement of cyclic
Page 58 and 59: Once you are satisfied that the tot
Page 60 and 61: Basic Empty Weight Pilot Fwd Passen
Page 62 and 63: Your ability to predict the perform
Page 64 and 65: Approximate Density Altitude - Thou
Page 66 and 67: the entire flight operation. Being
Page 68 and 69: From the previous chapters, it shou
Page 70 and 71: 2. brief passengers on the best way
Page 72 and 73: VERTICAL TAKEOFF TO A HOVER A verti
Page 74 and 75: Control pressures and direction of
Page 76 and 77: HOVER TAXI A "hover taxi" is used w
Page 78 and 79: 3. Assuming an extreme nose-down at
Page 80 and 81: tain altitude and r.p.m. As the tor
Page 82 and 83: Start Turn At Boundary Turn More Th
Page 84 and 85: the helicopter is being crabbed int
Page 86 and 87: APPROACHES An approach is the trans
Page 88 and 89: The maneuvers presented in this cha
Page 90 and 91: TECHNIQUE Refer to figure 10-2. To
Page 92 and 93: COMMON ERRORS 1. Failing to maintai
Page 94 and 95: Figure 10-7. Slope takeoff. be cons
Page 96 and 97:
made in the forward portion of the
Page 98 and 99:
Today helicopters are quite reliabl
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After touchdown and after the helic
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HEIGHT ABOVE SURFACE - FEET 500 450
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helicopter, while the relative airf
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When performing slope takeoff and l
Page 108 and 109:
the main rotor blades having an ang
Page 110 and 111:
WEATHERCOCK STABILITY (120-240°) I
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LOW FREQUENCY VIBRATIONS Low freque
Page 114 and 115:
Attitude instrument flying in helic
Page 116 and 117:
ways. If the ram air inlet is clogg
Page 118 and 119:
to true north. Because the aircraft
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AIRCRAFT CONTROL Controlling the he
Page 122 and 123:
vertical speed indicator immediatel
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POWER CONTROL DURING STRAIGHT-AND-
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50 60 70 80 40 TORQUE 90 30 100 20
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to the approximate setting for the
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used, the rate of cross-check must
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AUTOROTATIONS Both straight-ahead a
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{ { Flying at night can be a very p
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White Red Red White Green Red Green
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you are operating off-airport, you
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Aeronautical decision making (ADM)
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THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS An unde
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Night VFR Accident Rate Per 100,000
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STRESSORS Physical Stress—Conditi
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OPERATIONAL PITFALLS Peer Pressure
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January 9th, 1923, marked the first
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LANDING GEAR The landing gear provi
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Helicopters and gyroplanes both ach
Page 156 and 157:
elative wind striking the advancing
Page 158 and 159:
subject to pendular action in the s
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Due to rudimentary flight control s
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Gyroplanes are available in a wide
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Figure 18-4. This prerotator uses b
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inability to use differential braki
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As with most certificated aircraft
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8 TOTAL TAKEOFF DISTANCE TO CLEAR 5
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The diversity of gyroplane designs
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minimize the length of the ground r
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adjust the fuel/air mixture to achi
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maximum performance is desired, two
Page 180 and 181:
Start Turn At Boundary Turn More Th
Page 182 and 183:
Shallowest Bank UPPER HALF OF CIRCL
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of failing to monitor and maintain
Page 186 and 187:
for the gyroplane. When using the s
Page 188 and 189:
Gyroplanes are quite reliable, howe
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BUNTOVER (POWER PUSHOVER) As you le
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As with any aircraft, the ability t
Page 194 and 195:
leaves few places to safely land in
Page 196 and 197:
GLOSSARY ABSOLUTE ALTITUDE—The ac
Page 198 and 199:
FREE TURBINE—A turboshaft engine
Page 200 and 201:
TRANSLATIONAL LIFT—The additional
Page 202 and 203:
A ABORTED TAKEOFF, GYROPLANE 21-1 A
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turn indicators, 12-4 GYROSCOPIC PR
Page 206 and 207:
R RAPID DECELERATION 10-3 RECIPROCA
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