Status of Caribbean coral reefs after bleaching and hurricanes in 2005

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Status of Caribbean Coral Reefs after Bleaching and Hurricanes in 2005that maintains vital functions and processes, even if the coral reef itself looks quite differentfrom its pre-disturbance state. Ecosystem condition, biological diversity, and connectivity allcontribute to ability of the ecosystem to recover to a coral-dominated system, rather thanshifting to an algal-dominated state.Reefs suffering high coral mortality require a long recovery process of recolonisation bycoral larvae and asexual reproduction (such as fragmentation) by surviving corals. Successfulrecruitment depends on many conditions. These include the presence of ‘source’ reefs togenerate new larvae, good water quality that allows spawning and recruitment to succeed, andboth strong herbivore (plant/algae eaters) populations and good water quality to ensure thereis suitable clear coral rock available for new coral recruits.High biological diversity supports ecosystem recovery by increasing the chance that vitalfunctions will still be performed despite some degradation of the system. When a diversity ofspecies fulfill a function (for example, branching corals providing habitat for small fish), theloss of a single species will not lead to loss of the function. This ‘functional redundancy’ is amajor quality of resilient systems. A system is less prone to collapse when crucial functions areperformed by multiple species that respond differently to stress or disturbance events (calledresponse diversity).Connectivity plays a central role in determining the capacity of a system to recover or reorganizefollowing a disturbance, by influencing the likelihood that damaged reefs will be replenishedfrom ‘seed’ reefs or refugia. Much of the connectivity in reef ecosystems depends on intactand healthy non-reef habitats, such as inter-reef hard bottom communities, mangroves, orseagrass beds. These non-reef habitats are particularly important to maintain and regeneratepopulations, and they will become increasingly critical as reef systems spend more time inrecovery mode.There is ample evidence that coral ecosystems in good condition will recover from coralmortality more successfully than degraded reefs. Healthy reefs are better able to provide theconditions required for the recruitment, survival, and growth of new corals after establishedcorals have been killed by bleaching. Good water quality, an abundant and diverse communityof herbivorous fish, and high coral cover are vital aspects of ecosystem quality that facilitaterecovery. Therefore, management of local fisheries, water quality, and tourism stronglyinfluence the rate and success of recovery and future coral reef resilience.Support human adaptive capacityIn addition to supporting ecosystem resilience, actions can be taken to support the humancommunities that depend on coral reefs, such as fishers and tourism operators. There may be aquestion as to whether it is appropriate for coral reef or marine protected area (MPA) managersto engage in supporting human adaptive capacity to the affects of climate change. Yet, it isimportant to recognize that changes in resource condition are likely to result in changes inthe patterns of resource use. Engaging with stakeholders during this reorganization will allowmanagers to build alliances, and gain knowledge and influence to help in effectively adaptingmanagement regimes to the new circumstances. As climate change makes life less predictablefor resource users and managers, such cooperative, adaptive approaches will be essential tomaintain socioeconomic well-being and achieve responsive, effective natural resource planningand management.120
Managing for Mass Coral Bleaching: Strategies for Supporting Socio–ecological ResiliencePeople’s ability to adapt to degraded coral reefs will depend on their own skills, resources,attitudes, and how their livelihoods are dependent on good coral reef condition, as well as thebroader socioeconomic context in which they live. Resource users who have good skills forplanning, learning and reorganizing, good financial and social resources, and confidence intheir abilities and prospects are likely to be more resilient. Further, meaningful involvementin decision-making on natural resource management can increase user confidence and,concurrently, social resilience to changes in resource access resulting from the impacts ofcoral bleaching or through changes in management arrangements (4).Resource dependency and broader socioeconomic issues will also influence how reef users cansuccessfully diversify their activities when coral reefs become degraded. For example, recentstudies suggest that dive businesses in population centers are likely to be more capable ofresponding to changes in reef quality caused by mass bleaching. These operators can shift froma marketing strategy of providing high quality dive sites for experienced divers to a businessthat provides instruction for new divers or even to boating experiences for non-divers. Incomparison, mass bleaching may significantly affect businesses that take divers to remotelocations, renowned for exceptional coral reef quality. Tourists may be unwilling to travel sofar when high quality reefs are no longer on offer, and businesses in these remote locations mayhave limited options for business diversification (2).As coral reef condition degrades, reef users will probably change their resource-use patterns;these changes will have important implications for coastal environmental quality. For example,dive operators may seek ways of establishing artificial reefs. As coral reef fisheries decline,interest and investment in aquaculture may increase. By engaging with stakeholders duringthis process, coastal managers will have the best chance of developing and implementingstrategies that can meet goals for ecological as well as socioeconomic sustainability.An Ag e n da f o r Ac t i o nGlobal climate change and mass coral bleaching are now considered among the greatestthreats to the future condition of coral reefs and the services they provide. Although, it may bedifficult to see how coral reef managers can respond to such global threats, a closer look at thediscussion above reveals that opportunities for management action are present at each stageof the coral bleaching process. The strategies described below suggest ways to take advantageof these opportunities to support the socio-ecological resilience of coral reefs to global climatechange. They also illustrate how managers can influence efforts to limit the rate and severity ofglobal climate change. Mitigating climate change will require action by senior decision-makersworking in climate change policy forums; however, coral reef managers have an important roleto play in informing decision-makers and the general public about the affects of global climatepolicy on reefs. By taking action on these 5 strategies, coral reef managers will give reefs thebest chance of responding to changes in global climate.Strategy 1. Support efforts to limit sea temperature increases to 2ºC and maintain oceancarbonate ion concentrations above 200 μmol kg -1 .The rate and extent of warming will determine the window of opportunity for reefs to adjustthrough acclimatization, adaptation, and other ecological shifts. For example, fewer and lessintense sea temperature anomalies will reduce the frequency and severity of bleaching events.Subsequently, this will allow more time for reefs to recover between events that do occur.121
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Dedication: This book is dedicated
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Status of Coral Reefs in the Caribb
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3. Hu r r i ca n e s a n d t h e i
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Hurricanes and their Effect on Cora
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Hurricanes and their Effect on Cora
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4. Th e 2005 Bl e a c h i n g Ev e
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The 2005 Bleaching Event: Coral-Lis
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6. Co r a l Reefs o f t h e U.S. Ca
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Coral Reefs of the U.S. Caribbean19
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Status of Caribbean coral reefs after bleaching and hurricanes in 2005

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