Antropomotoryka nr 57 [2012]. - Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego ...

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Walking as a tool of physical fitness and body composition influencefrom the hip. This sweep is the first pendulum. Then theleg strikes the ground with the heel and rolls through tothe toe in a motion described as an inverted pendulum.The motion of the two legs is coordinated so that onefoot or the other is always in contact with the ground.The process of walking recovers approximately sixtypercent of the energy used due to pendulum dynamicsand ground reaction force [5–8].Another important difference concerns the movementof the center of mass of the body. In walking thebody “vaults” over the leg on the ground, raising thecenter of mass to its highest point as the leg passes thevertical, and dropping it to the lowest as the legs arespread apart [7].Essentially kinetic energy of forward motion is constantlybeing traded for a rise in potential energy. Thisis reversed in running, where the center of mass is at itslowest point as the leg is vertical. This is because theimpact of landing from the ballistic phase is absorbedby bending the leg and consequently storing energy inmuscles and tendons. In running there is a conversionbetween kinetic, potential, and elastic energy [8].There is an absolute limit on an individual’s speed ofwalking (without special techniques employed in speedwalking) due to the upwards acceleration of the centerof mass during a stride. If it is greater than the accelerationdue to gravity, the person will become airborne ashis/her body vaults over the leg on the ground. Typicallyhowever, animals switch into a run at lower speed thanthis due to energy efficiencies [5].Considerable number of people walk as a hobby,and in our post-industrial times walking is recognizedas one of the best forms of exercising. The types ofwalking include bushwalking, racewalking, weightwalking,hillwalking, volksmarching, Nordic walking andhiking on long-distance paths [4]. Some people preferto walk indoors using a treadmill. In certain countrieswalking as a hobby is known as hiking (this term istypical for North American people), rambling (a somewhatold-fashioned British expression, but remaining inuse because it is enshrined in the title of the importantRamblers), or tramping. Hiking is a subtype of walking,generally used to mean walking in nature areas on speciallydesignated routes or trails, as opposed to thosein urban environments; however, hiking can also referto any long-distance walk. More obscure expressionsof walking are: “to go by Marrow-bone stage”, “to takeone‘s daily constitutional”, “to ride Shanks’ pony”, “to rideShanks’ mare”, or “to go by Walker’s bus”. Search andrescue responders, who prefer walking to riding, driving,flying, climbing or sitting in a communications trailer,are known as “ground pounders” [4]. Professionals,who work on encouraging people to walk, come fromsix sectors: health, transport, environment, schools,sport and recreation and urban design.Regular, brisk cycling or walking can improve confidence,stamina, energy, weight control, life expectancyand reduce stress. It can also minimalize the risk ofcoronary heart disease, strokes, diabetes, high bloodpressure, bowel cancer and osteoporosis. Modernscientific studies have shown that walking, besides itsphysical benefits, is also beneficial for the mind, as itimproves memory skills, learning ability, concentrationand abstract reasoning, as well as reducing stressand uplifting one’s spirits [9]. Health benefits of physicalactivity are well-documented in relation to weightmanagement and the prevention of chronic illnesses; itis also an important factor in the process of improvingmental health and cognitive function [10].In spite of above-mentioned, our knowledge of thebenefits of physical activity does not go hand in handwith our understanding of how to get people active andmaintain activity level. There is an urgent need to developand test strategies for non-trained subjects toinclude physical activity into their lifestyle. These interventionsneed to be systematic, robust, and longer--term, incorporating different methods of engaging specificdemands of intervened population groups [11].A large number of factors influence physical activitybehavior, yet there is limited evidence of the effectivenessof strategies to increase physical activity.This is the case particularly in regard to booster programs,even though the little specific data available onphysical activity booster programs is generally positive.Interestingly, lessons may be learned from the obesitytreatment area, which has made significant gains interms of promoting and improving long-term behaviorchange [9, 12].The 10,000 steps per day is a physical activity prescriptionthat has been suggested to meet the minimumrecommendation for physical activity. Despite someresearch, that supports walking regularly and completing10,000 steps a day as enough activity to producepositive changes in lifestyle and certain aspects of fitnessand cardiovascular health, numerous researchershave shown limited effectiveness of walking programs,having questioned long-term durability of observedchanges [13–15].Walking is among such forms of physical activitywhich have proved their unique usefulness from both– 65 –
Václav Buncphysical and psychosocial standpoints in the healthimprovement program of the elderly people. However,there are many barriers to physical activity for the elderly,including safety issues, access, support, andhealth concerns. Community mall walking programshave the potential to remove several of these barriers,particularly safety and social support needs [6].Effects of walkingRecent position statements have re-affirmed the benefitsof an active lifestyle [9, 10]. The current physical activityrecommendation for adults, aged between 18–65years, to promote and maintain health is to accumulateat least 30 minutes of moderately intense physical activityon at least five days of the week. Promoting accumulative,lifestyle physical activity is an ideal approachto combat the high levels of inactivity evident in globalpopulations [16, 17].Brisk walking has been suggested as the mode ofphysical activity most likely to increase physical activityat a population level [18] and is the most commonly reportedmode of exercise amongst adults in many populations[11, 16]. It is available to almost all individuals withlittle risk of injury, as a no-cost activity it can be incorporatedinto people’s daily routines [19]. Researchershave identified that self-determined brisk walking, evenin short bouts of 10 minutes, for 30 minutes a day (includingsimple everyday walking activities such as walkinga dog) produce moderate physical activity at the intensityrequired to achieve health benefits [20, 21].Walking interventions can be effective in reducingbody weight, body mass index (BMI), waist and hipcircumference, body fat, blood pressure and the cholesterolhigh density lipoprotein (HDL) ratio [20–27],and may be effective in improving mood, affect [25, 28,30] and quality of life [31]. Conversely, some studieshave demonstrated that walking intervention as such isnot sufficient to affect any of these health-related outcomes[32–36]. The reasons for such equivocal resultsare unclear, therefore determining the potential healthbenefits that can be achieved through walking is crucialto the public health message.Whilst several meta-analytical and systematic reviewsexist that examine how best to promote physical activity[37, 38], there is comparatively limited evidence on themost effective methods to specifically promote walking.A recent systematic review from Ogilvie et al. [6] examinedthe effectiveness of interventions aimed to increasewalking at both the individual and population levels. Thereview concluded that the strongest evidence existed fortailored interventions that were targeted at individualsmost motivated to change. The authors suggested thatfuture studies should also attempt to examine whetherwalking interventions “are sufficiently frequent, intense, orsustained to produce measurable outcomes in anthropometric,physiological, biochemical or clinical outcomes”.A recent systematic review examined the associationbetween pedometer use, physical activity levels anda variety of health-related outcomes [39]. The authorsconcluded that the use of pedometer was significantlyassociated with increased physical activity levels andreductions in BMI and systolic blood pressure. In 2006the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence(NICE) in the United Kingdom produced a review ofpedometer-based intervention studies between 1990and 2005 [40]. Due to stringent incorporation criteria,conclusions from this review were drawn from only fourstudies. Both reviews provide support for the suggestionthat pedometers may be useful motivational tools for increasingwalking. However, there are several limitations,considering the volume of published studies in this area,highlighted in these reviews. Studies were predominantlyof short duration (< 12 weeks) and based in the USAwith small samples consisting mostly of clinical sub-populations.The evidence seemed to be limited regardingtheir effectiveness in non-clinical samples or in countriesother than the USA. Additionally, few studies reportedmore than one outcome variable of interest. There wasa need for cross-cultural, sufficiently powered randomizedcontrolled trials to further examine the effectivenessof pedometers in a community setting.In practice, a provider’s ability to promote physicalactivity has been limited by time constraints, lack oftraining in exercise prescription, concerns over monitoringpatient safety, and lack of access to cost-effectiveresources that help patients remain active.The goal of this study was to assess an effect ofintervention program based on walking on physical fitnessand body composition in groups without of regularphysical training differing in age.Material and methodsThree age groups: children (139 with normal mass,95 overweight and 65 with diagnosed obesity; meanage 12.2 ± 2.1 years), middle age men (68 individuals;mean age 45.7 ± 3.6 years) and 53 healthy seniorwomen (53 individuals; mean age 68.7 ± 5.0 years) participatedin the study that was among a set of physical– 66 –
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