t<strong>in</strong>uous epidural <strong>in</strong>fusion <strong>in</strong> children: a multicentertrial. Anesthesiology 2003; 99: 1166–1174.169 Chhibber A, Perk<strong>in</strong>s F, Rab<strong>in</strong>owitz R et al.Penile block tim<strong>in</strong>g for postoperative analgesiaof hypospadias repair <strong>in</strong> children. JUrol 1997; 158: 1156–1159.170 Apiliogullari S, Duman A, Gok F et al.Sp<strong>in</strong>al needle design <strong>and</strong> size affect the <strong>in</strong>cidenceof postdural puncture headache <strong>in</strong>children. Paediatr Anaesth 2010; 20: 177–182.171 Ozyuvaci E, Altan A, Yucel M et al. Evaluationof add<strong>in</strong>g preoperative or postoperativerectal paracetamol to caudalbupivaca<strong>in</strong>e for postoperative analgesia <strong>in</strong>children. Paediatr Anaesth 2004; 14: 661–665.172 F<strong>in</strong>dlow D, Aldridge L, Doyle E. Comparisonof caudal block us<strong>in</strong>g bupivaca<strong>in</strong>e <strong>and</strong>ketam<strong>in</strong>e with ilio<strong>in</strong>gu<strong>in</strong>al nerve block fororchidopexy <strong>in</strong> children. Anaesthesia 1997;52: 1110–1113.173 Somri M, Gait<strong>in</strong>i LA, Vaida SJ et al. Effectof ilio<strong>in</strong>gu<strong>in</strong>al nerve block on the catecholam<strong>in</strong>eplasma levels <strong>in</strong> orchidopexy: comparisonwith caudal epidural block. PaediatrAnaesth 2002; 12: 791–797.174 Verghese S, Hannallah R, Rice L et al. Caudalanesthesia <strong>in</strong> children: effect of volumeversus concentration of bupivaca<strong>in</strong>e onblock<strong>in</strong>g spermatic cord traction responsedur<strong>in</strong>g orchidopexy. Anesth Analg 2002; 95:1219–1223.175 Hong JY, Han SW, Kim WO et al. A comparisonof high volume/low concentration<strong>and</strong> low volume/high concentration ropivaca<strong>in</strong>e<strong>in</strong> caudal analgesia for pediatricorchiopexy. Anesth Analg 2009; 109: 1073–1078.176 Semple D, F<strong>in</strong>dlow D, Aldridge L et al. Theoptimal dose of ketam<strong>in</strong>e for caudal epiduralblockade <strong>in</strong> children. Anaesthesia 1996;51: 1170–1172.177 Hong JY, Han SW, Kim WO et al. Effectof dexamethasone <strong>in</strong> comb<strong>in</strong>ation with caudalanalgesia on postoperative pa<strong>in</strong> control<strong>in</strong> day-case paediatric orchiopexy. Br J Anaesth2010; 105: 506–510.178 Fitzgerald M, McG<strong>in</strong>ley J. The use of transverseabdom<strong>in</strong>al plane block for orchidopexy.Paediatr Anaesth 2009; 19: 810–811.179 Machotta A, Risse A, Bercker S et al. Comparisonbetween <strong>in</strong>stillation of bupivaca<strong>in</strong>eversus caudal analgesia for postoperativeanalgesia follow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>gu<strong>in</strong>al herniotomy <strong>in</strong>children. Paediatr Anaesth 2003; 13: 397–402.180 Sakellaris G, Petrakis I, Makatounaki K etal. Effects of ropivaca<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong>filtration on cortisol<strong>and</strong> prolact<strong>in</strong> responses to postoperativepa<strong>in</strong> after <strong>in</strong>gu<strong>in</strong>al hernioraphy <strong>in</strong>children. J Pediatr Surg 2004; 39: 1400–1403.181 Kumar P, Rudra A, Pan A et al. Caudaladditives <strong>in</strong> pediatrics: a comparison amongmidazolam, ketam<strong>in</strong>e, <strong>and</strong> neostigm<strong>in</strong>e coadm<strong>in</strong>isteredwith bupivaca<strong>in</strong>e. AnesthAnalg 2005; 101: 69–73.182 Sasaoka N, Kawaguchi M, Yoshitani K etal. Evaluation of genitofemoral nerve block,<strong>in</strong> addition to ilio<strong>in</strong>gu<strong>in</strong>al <strong>and</strong> iliohypogastricnerve block, dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>gu<strong>in</strong>al herniarepair <strong>in</strong> children. Br J Anaesth 2005; 94:243–246.183 Naja ZM, Raf M, El-Rajab M et al. A comparisonof nerve stimulator guided paravertebralblock <strong>and</strong> ilio-<strong>in</strong>gu<strong>in</strong>al nerve blockfor analgesia after <strong>in</strong>gu<strong>in</strong>al herniorrhaphy <strong>in</strong>children. Anaesthesia 2006; 61: 1064–1068.184 Tug R, Ozcengiz D, Gunes Y. S<strong>in</strong>gle levelparavertebral versus caudal block <strong>in</strong> paediatric<strong>in</strong>gu<strong>in</strong>al surgery. Anaesth IntensiveCare 2011; 39: 909–913.185 Ko<strong>in</strong>ig H, Krenn CG, Glaser C et al. Thedose–response of caudal ropivaca<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> children.Anesthesiology 1999; 90: 1339–1344.186 Joshi W, Connelly N, Dwyer M et al. Acomparison of two concentrations of bupivaca<strong>in</strong>e<strong>and</strong> adrenal<strong>in</strong>e with <strong>and</strong> withoutfentanyl <strong>in</strong> paediatric <strong>in</strong>gu<strong>in</strong>al herniorrhaphy.Paediatr Anaesth 1999; 9: 317–320.187 Schrock C, Jones M. The dose of caudalepidural analgesia <strong>and</strong> duration of postoperativeanalgesia. Paediatr Anaesth 2003; 13:403–408.188 Klimscha W, Chiari A, Michalek-SaubererA et al. The efficacy <strong>and</strong> safety of a clonid<strong>in</strong>e/bupivaca<strong>in</strong>ecomb<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>in</strong> caudalblockade for pediatric hernia repair. AnesthAnalg 1998; 86: 54–61.189 Gait<strong>in</strong>i L, Somri M, Vaida S et al. Does theaddition of fentanyl to bupivaca<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> caudalepidural block have an effect on theplasma level of catecholam<strong>in</strong>es <strong>in</strong> children?Anesth Analg 2000; 90: 1029–1033.190 Ozcengiz D, Gunduz M, Ozbek H et al.Comparison of caudal morph<strong>in</strong>e <strong>and</strong> tramadolfor postoperative pa<strong>in</strong> control <strong>in</strong> childrenundergo<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>gu<strong>in</strong>al herniorrhaphy.Paediatr Anaesth 2001; 11: 459–464.191 Senel A, Akyol A, Dohman D et al. Caudalbupivaca<strong>in</strong>e-tramadol comb<strong>in</strong>ation for postoperativeanalgesia <strong>in</strong> pediatric herniorrhaphy.Acta Anaesthesiol Sc<strong>and</strong> 2001; 45: 786–789.192 Baris S, Karakaya D, Kelsaka E et al. Comparisonof fentanyl-bupivaca<strong>in</strong>e or midazolam-bupivaca<strong>in</strong>emixtures with pla<strong>in</strong>bupivaca<strong>in</strong>e for caudal anaesthesia <strong>in</strong> children.Paediatr Anaesth 2003; 13: 126–131.193 Memis D, Turan A, Karamanlioglu B et al.Caudal neostigm<strong>in</strong>e for postoperative analgesia<strong>in</strong> paediatric surgery. Paediatr Anaesth2003; 13: 324–328.194 Somri M, Tome R, Teszler CB et al. Doesadd<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>travenous fentanyl to caudal block<strong>in</strong> children enhance the efficacy of multimodalanalgesia as reflected <strong>in</strong> the plasmalevel of catecholam<strong>in</strong>es? Eur J Anaesthesiol2007; 24: 408–413.195 Yildiz TS, Ozdamar D, Bagus F et al. Levobupivaca<strong>in</strong>e-tramadolcomb<strong>in</strong>ation for caudalblock <strong>in</strong> children: a r<strong>and</strong>omized, doublebl<strong>in</strong>ded,prospective study. Paediatr Anaesth2010; 20: 524–529.196 Panjabi N, Prakash S, Gupta P et al. Efficacyof three doses of ketam<strong>in</strong>e with bupivaca<strong>in</strong>efor caudal analgesia <strong>in</strong> pediatric<strong>in</strong>gu<strong>in</strong>al herniotomy. Reg Anesth Pa<strong>in</strong> Med2004; 29: 28–31.197 Yildiz TS, Korkmaz F, Solak M et al. Clonid<strong>in</strong>eaddition prolongs the duration ofcaudal analgesia. Acta Anaesthesiol Sc<strong>and</strong>2006; 50: 501–504.198 Marhofer P, Krenn C, Plochl W et al.S(+)-ketam<strong>in</strong>e for caudal block <strong>in</strong> paediatricanaesthesia. Br J Anaesth 2000; 84: 341–345.199 Hager H, Marhofer P, Sitzwohl C et al.Caudal clonid<strong>in</strong>e prolongs analgesia fromcaudal S(+)-ketam<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> children. AnesthAnalg 2002; 94: 1169–1172,table of contents.200 Ko<strong>in</strong>ig H, Marhofer P, Krenn CG et al.Analgesic effects of caudal <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>tramuscularS(+)-ketam<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> children. Anesthesiology2000; 93: 976–980.201 Kundra P, Deepalakshmi K, RavishankarM. Preemptive caudal bupivaca<strong>in</strong>e <strong>and</strong> morph<strong>in</strong>efor postoperative analgesia <strong>in</strong> children.Anesth Analg 1998; 87: 52–56.202 Naja ZM, Raf M, El Rajab M et al. Nervestimulator-guided paravertebral blockadecomb<strong>in</strong>ed with sevoflurane sedation versusgeneral anesthesia with systemic analgesiafor postherniorrhaphy pa<strong>in</strong> relief <strong>in</strong> children:a prospective r<strong>and</strong>omized trial. Anesthesiology2005; 103: 600–605.203 Lim SL, Ng Sb A, Tan GM. Ilio<strong>in</strong>gu<strong>in</strong>al<strong>and</strong> iliohypogastric nerve block revisited:s<strong>in</strong>gle shot versus double shot technique forhernia repair <strong>in</strong> children. Paediatr Anaesth2002; 12: 255–260.204 Tsuchiya N, Ichizawa M, Yoshikawa Y etal. Comparison of ropivaca<strong>in</strong>e with bupivaca<strong>in</strong>e<strong>and</strong> lidoca<strong>in</strong>e for ilio<strong>in</strong>gu<strong>in</strong>al blockafter ambulatory <strong>in</strong>gu<strong>in</strong>al hernia repair <strong>in</strong>children. Paediatr Anaesth 2004; 14: 468–470.205 Disma N, Tuo P, Pellegr<strong>in</strong>o S et al. Threeconcentrations of levobupivaca<strong>in</strong>e for ilio<strong>in</strong>gu<strong>in</strong>al/iliohypogastricnerve block <strong>in</strong> ambulatorypediatric surgery. J Cl<strong>in</strong> Anesth 2009;21: 389–393.206 We<strong>in</strong>traud M, Lundblad M, Kettner SC etal. 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plasma levels of ropivaca<strong>in</strong>e. Anesth Analg2009; 108: 1488–1492.207 Willschke H, Bosenberg A, Marhofer P etal. Ultrasonographic-guided ilio<strong>in</strong>gu<strong>in</strong>al/iliohypogastricnerve block <strong>in</strong> pediatric anesthesia:what is the optimal volume? AnesthAnalg 2006; 102: 1680–1684.208 We<strong>in</strong>traud M, Marhofer P, Bosenberg A etal. Ilio<strong>in</strong>gu<strong>in</strong>al/iliohypogastric blocks <strong>in</strong> children:where do we adm<strong>in</strong>ister the local anestheticwithout direct visualization? AnesthAnalg 2008; 106: 89–93,table of contents.209 Dahl V, Raeder JC, Erno PE et al. Pre-emptiveeffect of pre-<strong>in</strong>cisional versus post-<strong>in</strong>cisional<strong>in</strong>filtration of local anaesthesia onchildren undergo<strong>in</strong>g hernioplasty. Acta AnaesthesiolSc<strong>and</strong> 1996; 40: 847–851.210 Cnar SO, Kum U, Cevizci N et al. Effectsof levobupivaca<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong>filtration on postoperativeanalgesia <strong>and</strong> stress response <strong>in</strong> childrenfollow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>gu<strong>in</strong>al hernia repair. Eur J Anaesthesiol2009; 26: 430–434.211 Demiraran Y, Ilce Z, Kocaman B et al.Does tramadol wound <strong>in</strong>filtration offer anadvantage over bupivaca<strong>in</strong>e for postoperativeanalgesia <strong>in</strong> children follow<strong>in</strong>g herniotomy?Paediatr Anaesth 2006; 16: 1047–1050.212 Hong JY, Won Han S, Kim WO et al. Fentanylspar<strong>in</strong>g effects of comb<strong>in</strong>ed ketorolac<strong>and</strong> acetam<strong>in</strong>ophen for outpatient <strong>in</strong>gu<strong>in</strong>alhernia repair <strong>in</strong> children. J Urol 2010; 183:1551–1555.213 Riad W, Moussa A. Pre-operative analgesiawith rectal diclofenac <strong>and</strong>/or paracetamol <strong>in</strong>children undergo<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>gu<strong>in</strong>al hernia repair.Anaesthesia 2007; 62: 1241–1245.214 Gurnaney HG, Maxwell LG, Kraemer FWet al. Prospective r<strong>and</strong>omized observerbl<strong>in</strong>dedstudy compar<strong>in</strong>g the analgesic efficacyof ultrasound-guided rectus sheathblock <strong>and</strong> local anaesthetic <strong>in</strong>filtration forumbilical hernia repair. Br J Anaesth 2011;107: 790–795.215 Clarke FK, Cassey JG. Paraumbilical blockfor umbilical herniorraphy. ANZ J Surg2007; 77: 659–661.216 de Jose Maria B, Gotzens V, Mabrok M.Ultrasound-guided umbilical nerve block <strong>in</strong>children: a brief description of a newapproach. Paediatr Anaesth 2007; 17: 44–50.217 Isaac LA, McEwen J, Hayes JA et al. Apilot study of the rectus sheath block forpa<strong>in</strong> control after umbilical hernia repair.Paediatr Anaesth 2006; 16: 406–409.218 Willschke H, Bosenberg A, Marhofer P etal. Ultrasonography-guided rectus sheathblock <strong>in</strong> paediatric anaesthesia – a newapproach to an old technique. Br J Anaesth2006; 97: 244–249.219 Bray R, Woodhams AM, Vallis CJ et al.. Adouble-bl<strong>in</strong>d comparison of morph<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong>fusion<strong>and</strong> patient controlled analgesia <strong>in</strong> children.Paediatr Anaesth 1996; 6: 121–127.220 Peters J, B<strong>and</strong>ell Hoekstra I, Huijer Abu-Saad H et al. Patient controlled analgesia <strong>in</strong>children <strong>and</strong> adolescents: a r<strong>and</strong>omized controlledtrial. Paediatr Anaesth 1999; 9: 235–241.221 Monitto C, Greenberg R, Kost-Byerly S etal. The safety <strong>and</strong> efficacy of parent-/nursecontrolledanalgesia <strong>in</strong> patients less than sixyears of age. Anesth Analg 2000; 91: 573–579.222 van Dijk M, Bouwmeester N, DuivenvoordenH et al. Efficacy of cont<strong>in</strong>uous versus<strong>in</strong>termittent morph<strong>in</strong>e adm<strong>in</strong>istration aftermajor surgery <strong>in</strong> 0–3-year-old <strong>in</strong>fants; adouble-bl<strong>in</strong>d r<strong>and</strong>omized controlled trial.Pa<strong>in</strong> 2002; 98: 305–313.223 Howard RF, Lloyd-Thomas A, Thomas Met al. Nurse-controlled analgesia (NCA) follow<strong>in</strong>gmajor surgery <strong>in</strong> 10,000 patients <strong>in</strong> achildren’s hospital. Paediatr Anaesth 2010;20: 126–134.224 Kart T, Walther-Larsen S, Svejborg T et al.Comparison of cont<strong>in</strong>uous epidural <strong>in</strong>fusionof fentanyl <strong>and</strong> bupivaca<strong>in</strong>e with <strong>in</strong>termittentepidural adm<strong>in</strong>istration of morph<strong>in</strong>efor postoperative pa<strong>in</strong> management <strong>in</strong> children.Acta Anaesthesiol Sc<strong>and</strong> 1997; 41:461–465.225 Bosenberg A. Epidural analgesia for majorneonatal surgery. Paediatr Anaesth 1998; 8:479–483.226 Moriarty A. <strong>Postoperative</strong> extradural <strong>in</strong>fusions<strong>in</strong> children: prelim<strong>in</strong>ary data from acomparison of bupivaca<strong>in</strong>e/diamorph<strong>in</strong>ewith pla<strong>in</strong> ropivaca<strong>in</strong>e. Paediatr Anaesth1999; 9: 423–427.227 Bosenberg AT, Cronje L, Thomas J et al.Ropivaca<strong>in</strong>e plasma levels <strong>and</strong> postoperativeanalgesia <strong>in</strong> neonates <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>fants dur<strong>in</strong>g 48–72 h cont<strong>in</strong>uous epidural <strong>in</strong>fusion follow<strong>in</strong>gmajor surgery. Paediatr Anaesth 2003; 13:851–852.228 Cucchiaro G, Dagher C, Baujard C et al.Side-effects of postoperative epidural analgesia<strong>in</strong> children: a r<strong>and</strong>omized study compar<strong>in</strong>gmorph<strong>in</strong>e <strong>and</strong> clonid<strong>in</strong>e. PaediatrAnaesth 2003; 13: 318–323.229 Szabova A, Sadhasivam S, Wang Y et al.Comparison of postoperative analgesia withepidural butorphanol/bupivaca<strong>in</strong>e versusfentanyl/bupivaca<strong>in</strong>e follow<strong>in</strong>g pediatricurological procedures. J Opioid Manag2010; 6: 401–407.230 Ivani G, Lampugnani E, De Negri P et al.Ropivaca<strong>in</strong>e vs bupivaca<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> major surgery<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>fants. Can J Anaesth 1999; 46:467–469.231 Bosenberg AT, Thomas J, Cronje L et al.Pharmacok<strong>in</strong>etics <strong>and</strong> efficacy of ropivaca<strong>in</strong>efor cont<strong>in</strong>uous epidural <strong>in</strong>fusion <strong>in</strong>neonates <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>fants. Paediatr Anaesth2005; 15: 739–749.232 Inanoglu K, Ozcengiz D, Gunes Y et al.Epidural ropivaca<strong>in</strong>e versus ropivaca<strong>in</strong>e plustramadol <strong>in</strong> postoperative analgesia <strong>in</strong> childrenundergo<strong>in</strong>g major abdom<strong>in</strong>al surgery:a comparison. J Anesth 2010; 24: 700–704.233 Klamt J, Garcia L, Stocche R et al. Epidural<strong>in</strong>fusion of clonid<strong>in</strong>e or clonid<strong>in</strong>e plusropivaca<strong>in</strong>e for postoperative analgesia <strong>in</strong>children undergo<strong>in</strong>g major abdom<strong>in</strong>al surgery.J Cl<strong>in</strong> Anesth 2003; 15: 510–514.234 Vetter TR, Carvallo D, Johnson JL et al. Acomparison of s<strong>in</strong>gle-dose caudal clonid<strong>in</strong>e,morph<strong>in</strong>e, or hydromorphone comb<strong>in</strong>edwith ropivaca<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> pediatric patients undergo<strong>in</strong>gureteral reimplantation. Anesth Analg2007; 104: 1356–1363.235 El-Hennawy AM, Abd-Elwahab AM, Abd-Elmaksoud AM et al. Addition of clonid<strong>in</strong>eor dexmedetomid<strong>in</strong>e to bupivaca<strong>in</strong>e prolongscaudal analgesia <strong>in</strong> children. Br JAnaesth 2009; 103: 268–274.236 Bozkurt P, Kaya G, Yeker Y. S<strong>in</strong>gle-<strong>in</strong>jectionlumbar epidural morph<strong>in</strong>e for postoperativeanalgesia <strong>in</strong> children: a report of 175cases. Reg Anesth 1997; 22: 212–217.237 Kiffer F, Joly A, Wodey E et al. The effectof preoperative epidural morph<strong>in</strong>e on postoperativeanalgesia <strong>in</strong> children. AnesthAnalg 2001; 93: 598–600.238 Chabas E, Gomar C, Villalonga A et al.<strong>Postoperative</strong> respiratory function <strong>in</strong> childrenafter abdom<strong>in</strong>al surgery. A comparisonof epidural <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>tramuscular morph<strong>in</strong>eanalgesia. Anaesthesia 1998; 53: 393–397.239 Berta E, Spanhel J, Smakal O et al. S<strong>in</strong>gle<strong>in</strong>jection paravertebral block for renal surgery<strong>in</strong> children. Paediatr Anaesth 2008; 18:593–597.240 Spl<strong>in</strong>ter WM, Thomson ME. Somatic paravertebralblock decreases opioid requirements<strong>in</strong> children undergo<strong>in</strong>gappendectomy. Can J Anaesth 2010; 57:206–210.241 Fredrickson MJ, Seal P. Ultrasound-guidedtransversus abdom<strong>in</strong>is plane block for neonatalabdom<strong>in</strong>al surgery. Anaesth IntensiveCare 2009; 37: 469–472.242 Niraj G, Searle A, Mathews M et al. Analgesicefficacy of ultrasound-guided transversusabdom<strong>in</strong>is plane block <strong>in</strong> patientsundergo<strong>in</strong>g open appendicectomy. Br J Anaesth2009; 103: 601–605.243 Carney J, F<strong>in</strong>nerty O, Rauf J et al. Ipsilateraltransversus abdom<strong>in</strong>is plane block provideseffective analgesia after appendectomy<strong>in</strong> children: a r<strong>and</strong>omized controlled trial.Anesth Analg 2010; 111: 998–1003.244 Charlton S, Cyna AM, Middleton P et al.Perioperative transversus abdom<strong>in</strong>is plane(TAP) blocks for analgesia after abdom<strong>in</strong>alsurgery. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2010;Dec 8;(12): CD007705.ª 2012 Blackwell Publish<strong>in</strong>g Ltd, Pediatric Anesthesia, 22 (Suppl. 1), 1–79 61
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RecommendationsChildren’s self-re
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Topical anesthetic preparations, fo
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