A Practical Approach, Second Edition=Ronald D. Ho.pdf

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1118 DEVELOPMENTAL REPRODUCTIVE TOXICOLOGY: A PRACTICAL APPROACH, SECOND EDITIONat 60, 90, 120, or 150 of age. Over time, all four groups demonstrated an increasing ability to solvethe delayed response task. However, Harlow did note that the capacity to solve delayed-responseproblems was better in animals 125 to 135 days of age compared to 60-90 days of age. In addition,half of the monkeys at 200 to 250 days of age had essentially flawless performance in this task. Itis clear that the capacity to solve delayed-response problems matures later than the capacity tosolve object-discrimination tasks.Two broad conclusions can be derived from the monkey data presented thus far. First, certainlearning abilities appear extremely early in life in the rhesus monkey, e.g., conditioned avoidanceor black-white discrimination. The ability to solve a problem may be present as early as 1 day ofage, and within a matter of days, performance will change from chance levels to nearly 100%accuracy. Second, the development of certain, more complex, learning abilities is more gradual andprogressively improves, e.g., delay-response learning and some discrimination learning tasks (e.g.,color, pattern or shape discrimination). Interestedly, extensive early training on complex tasks (e.g.,delayed response task) did not facilitate the solution, but rather success was clearly a function ofage, i.e., even when young animals were trained more extensively than the older animals, theirperformance did not equal that of older monkeys (Zimmerman and Torrey, 1965).Conclusions for Cognitive DevelopmentThere is evidence that rats, dogs, monkeys and human infants have learning capacities that changeduring development. In all species evaluated, the capacity to mediate reflexive behaviors emergedbefore learned behavioral reactions. Vogt and Rudy (Vogt and Rudy, 1984) suggested that thesequence of behavioral development reflects a sequential caudal to rostral maturation of components.That is, the lower centers of a sensory system are sufficient to support primitive reflexivebehaviors, and it is well established that subcortical structures are sufficient to support manyinstances of Pavlovian conditioning (Girden et al., 1936; LeDoux et al., 1984). However, highercenters of learning (e.g., hippocampus and prefrontal cortex) are necessary for the acquisition ofmore complex behaviors.Therefore, in all common laboratory species, evaluations of cognitive function during juveniletoxicity studies can provide insight into the ontogeny of the maturation of these systems. The timerequired to learn a particular task is often greater in neonates and infants compared to adults. Inaddition, the accuracy of learning that task is often not equal to an adult. This implies that eventhough a task can be completed at a fairly young age, it is by no means functionally mature, i.e.,at adult levels of performance. Finally, it is important to remember that learning and memory areintimately associated with the maturation of many of the sensory systems described above (Table 4).Ontogeny of CommunicationEarly in postnatal development, many species use some form of communication to express fundamentalneeds (e.g., hunger and fear). However, the complexity of the communication often undergoesa period of prolonged postnatal development.HumansInfants have many methods of preverbal communication, e.g., crying, smiling, clinging, and kissing(Illingworth, 1983; Morley, 1972; Murray and Murray, 1980; Nelson, 2000). At about 2 months,the infant listens to voices and coos in response, and around 3 months, she begins to make sounds(e.g., “aah”, “ngah”). At 4 months, laughing out loud occurs, and the infant may show displeasureif social contact is broken or excitement at the sight of food. At 8 months, preference for the motheremerges, the infant begins to babble with new complexity and inflections that mimic the nativelanguage. Around 9 to 10 months a critical step occurs in speech development, an infant begins to© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
POSTNATAL DEVELOPMENTAL MILESTONES 1119Table 4Learning TaskSummary of Cognitive DevelopmentHumansClassical Conditioning (air puff)Operant Conditioning (task-dependent)Long-term recallImplicit LearningExplicit LearningRatsAppetitive LearningAssociative Learning (Olfactory)Active AvoidancePassive AvoidanceSequential Learning (Biel Maze)Proximal Cued Learning (Morris Water Maze)Spatial Learning (Morris Water Maze)DogsAssociative Learning (Olfactory)Visual DiscriminationDelayed Response TaskNon-Human PrimatesConditioned AvoidanceBlack-White Discrimination TaskColor, Pattern or Shape DiscriminationDelayed-Response TaskApproximate Postnatal Age Ability Emerges20–30 days old2 months–18 months≥13 months–20 months
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Second EditionDEVELOPMENTALandREPRO
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Published in 2006 byCRC PressTaylor
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Chapter 12Chapter 13Chapter 14Chapt
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The EditorRonald D. Hood, Ph.D., is
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Alan M. HobermanArgus ResearchHorsh
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APPENDIX ATerminology of Anatomical
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TERMINOLOGY OF ANATOMICAL DEFECTS 9
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Organ/StructureCodeNumberObservatio
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Organ/Structure10145 Ocular colobom
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Organ/StructurePulmonaryarteryPulmo
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Terminology of developmental abnorm
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Organ/StructureCervicalcentrumCodeN
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Organ/Structure10689 Misshapen thor
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Organ/StructureSacralcentrumSacralv
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968 DEVELOPMENTAL REPRODUCTIVE TOXI
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1000 DEVELOPMENTAL REPRODUCTIVE TOX
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Table 1Human Non-human Primate Rat
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Table 1 (continued)Sertoli CellsHum
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Table 2 (continued) Landmarks in th
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Table 2 (continued) Landmarks in th
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Page 231 and 232: PART IPrinciples and Mechanisms© 2
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40 DEVELOPMENTAL REPRODUCTIVE TOXIC
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Clearly, more research needs to be
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CHAPTER 6Comparative Features of Ve
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COMPARATIVE FEATURES OF VERTEBRATE
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Table 6.2Comparative reproductive a
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Maturation andRelease ofGametesSper
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Amniotic cavity 9.5 1.5 1-4 1-4,6,9
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Posteriorcardinal veinsestablishedT
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PosteriorcardinaldegenerationRight
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StomachappearsThirdpharyngealpouch;
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Table 6.6DescriptionComparative ges
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ParathyroidParathyroids 12.5 6.2 41
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Table 6.8DescriptionComparative ges
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Formation ofchoroid plexusof latera
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Optic nervefibers presentDifferenti
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Table 6.10DescriptionMuscular Syste
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Distalphalanges offingersseparatedF
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Table 6.11DescriptionIntermediateme
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Table 6.12DescriptionComparative ge
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CHAPTER 7Developmental Toxicity Tes
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DEVELOPMENTAL TOXICITY TESTING —
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Female 0.00-0.69 0.004-0.39 0.00-0.
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Figure 8.11775Pott DescribesScrotal
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The underlying physiology of juveni
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Table 8.5Total body composition by
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Table 8.6Serum chemistry values for
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Table 8.7Parameter bHematology valu
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CHAPTER 9Significance, Reliability,
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DEVELOPMENTAL AND REPRODUCTIVE TOXI
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Prior to the early 1980s, numerous
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Figure 9.51906Food andDrugs Act2000
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Table 9.18Selected comparison point
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Table 9.33Selected comparison point
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Table 9.48What do regulatorswant to
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CHAPTER 10Testing for Reproductive
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TESTING FOR REPRODUCTIVE TOXICITY 4
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We would like to acknowledge the ef
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CHAPTER 12Role of Xenobiotic Metabo
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ROLE OF XENOBIOTIC METABOLISM IN DE
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y ESR spectrometry. 122 Further ESR
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CHAPTER 13Use of Toxicokinetics in
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USE OF TOXICOKINETICS IN DEVELOPMEN
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CHAPTER 17Statistical Analysis for
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STATISTICAL ANALYSIS FOR DEVELOPMEN
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CHAPTER 19Perspectives on the Devel
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PERSPECTIVES ON THE DEVELOPMENTAL A
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Guideline OECD 415 (One Generation)
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The Office of Prevention, Pesticide
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CHAPTER 20Human Studies — Epidemi
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HUMAN STUDIES 801I. INTRODUCTIONEpi
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HUMAN STUDIES 803is actively trying
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HUMAN STUDIES 805100908070Induced a
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HUMAN STUDIES 8071009590>37 w33-36
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HUMAN STUDIES 80940003500Mean birth
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HUMAN STUDIES 811from monstrous, us
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HUMAN STUDIES 829B. The Formation o
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HUMAN STUDIES 837with spina bifida
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HUMAN STUDIES 83926. Haglund, B. an
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CHAPTER 21Developmental and Reprodu
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