Engineering Geology

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E n g i n e e r i n g G e o l o g y Table 4.6. Chemical analysis of representative groundwaters Bourne, Summerfield, Thornton, Location Gravesend Watford Lincs. Great Worcs. Sherwood Northumberland Aquifer Chalk Chalk Oolite Sandstone Fell Sandstone Ca 280 115 135 40 60 Mg 31 5 9 12 60 Na 2750 18 K 98 15 4 8 CO 3 153 147 138 56 SO 4 700 39 150 26 38 Cl 5000 20 24 19 22 NO 3 35 ND 2 30 TDS 9370 384 491 213 ND CH 255 245 230 93 ND N-CH 1755 64 145 97 ND Note: TDS = total dissolved solids; CH = carbonate hardness; N-CH = non-carbonate hardness; ND not determined. Classification of TDS (mg l -1 ): fresh = less than 1000; slightly saline = 1000 to 3000; moderately saline = 3000 to 10,000; very saline = 10,000 to 35,000; briny = over 35,000. Classification of hardness (mg l -1 as CaCO 3 ): soft = under 60; moderately hard = 60–120; hard = 120–180; very hard = over 180. whether there is sufficient time for dissolution of minerals to proceed to the point where the solution is in equilibrium with the reaction. Residence time depends on the rate of groundwater movement, and this usually is very slow beneath the water table. As the character of groundwater in an aquifer frequently changes with depth, it is possible at times to recognize zones of different qualities of groundwater (Elliot et al., 2001). The solution of carbonates, especially calcium and magnesium carbonate, is principally due to the formation of weak carbonic acid in the soil horizons where CO 2 is dissolved by soil water. Calcium in sedimentary rocks is derived from calcite, aragonite, dolomite, anhydrite and gypsum. In igneous and metamorphic rocks, calcium is supplied by the feldspars, pyroxenes, amphiboles and the less common minerals such as apatite and wollastonite. Because of its abundance, calcium is one of the most common ions in groundwater. Bicarbonate is formed when calcium carbonate is attacked by carbonic acid. Calcium carbonate and bicarbonate are the dominant constituents found in the zone of active circulation and for some distance under the cover of younger strata. The normal concentration of calcium in groundwater ranges from 10 to 100 mg l -1 . Such concentrations have no effect on health, and it has been suggested that as much as 1000 mg l -1 may be harmless (Edmunds and Smedley, 1996). Magnesium, sodium and potassium are less common cations, and sulphate, chloride and nitrate (to some extent) are less common anions, although the latter may be present in significant concentrations in some groundwaters. Dolomite is the common source of magnesium 184
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Engineering Geology
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Engineering Geology Second Edition
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Preface As noted in the Preface to
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Contents 1. Rock Types and Stratigr
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Contents Field Instrumentation 344
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Chapter 1 Rock Types and Stratigrap
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Chapter 1 several tens of metres bu
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Chapter 1 Figure 1.4 Distribution o
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Chapter 1 Figure 1.5 Lapilli near C
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Chapter 1 Figure 1.7 (a) Ropy or pa
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Chapter 1 Figure 1.8 Columnar joint
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Chapter 1 Figure 1.9 Pegmatite vein
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Chapter 1 Figure 1.10 Thin section
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Chapter 1 Figure 1.11 An old quarry
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Chapter 1 a b Figure 1.13 (a) Gneis
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Chapter 1 and the types of country
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Chapter 1 A variety of minerals suc
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Chapter 1 metasomatic activity is c
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Chapter 1 derived by partial intras
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Chapter 1 character (are they irreg
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Chapter 1 the top. Individual grade
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Chapter 1 Figure 1.20 Thin section
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Chapter 1 Montmorillonite [(Mg,Al)
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Chapter 1 Figure 1.22 Salt teepees
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Chapter 1 The extent and regularity
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Chapter 1 the lowest bed in the upp
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Table 1.1. The geological timescale
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Chapter 1 The principal way in whic
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Chapter 2 Geological Structures The
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Chapter 2 (b) Figure 2.2 (a) Block
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Chapter 2 (b) Figure 2.4 (a) Types
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Chapter 2 Figure 2.6 Chevron fold i
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Chapter 2 direction of extension. T
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Chapter 2 Figure 2.9 Types of fault
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Chapter 2 Figure 2.11 (a) Repetitio
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Chapter 2 side of a fault are of di
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Chapter 2 Figure 2.14 Geometric ori
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Chapter 2 As joints represent surfa
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Chapter 2 (several metres). The int
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Chapter 2 Strength of Discontinuous
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Chapter 2 Table 2.5. Classification
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73 Figure 2.17 Discontinuity survey
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Chapter 2 Figure 2.19 Representatio
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Chapter 3 Surface Processes All lan
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Chapter 3 humid regions more than d
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Chapter 3 Figure 3.3 Honeycomb weat
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Chapter 3 less soluble than limesto
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Chapter 3 Figure 3.4 The slake-dura
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Chapter 3 Because weathering brings
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Chapter 3 Figure 3.6 Approaches to
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Chapter 3 Figure 3.7 Valley bulging
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Chapter 3 Internal slides are usual
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Chapter 3 Figure 3.8 A classificati
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Chapter 3 Figure 3.10 Block diagram
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Chapter 3 direct factor in causing
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Chapter 3 Figure 3.14 (a) Trellised
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Chapter 3 Throughout its length, a
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Chapter 3 Figure 3.17 (a) Paired ri
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Chapter 3 Figure 3.18 Component par
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Chapter 3 In the early stages of ri
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Chapter 3 Karst Topography and Unde
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Chapter 3 Figure 3.22 Appearance of
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Chapter 3 the surface throughout th
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Chapter 3 Figure 3.25 Drumlins, nea
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Chapter 3 barrier, the threshold, o
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Chapter 3 Most melt water streams t
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Chapter 3 Other small ridge-like ka
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Chapter 3 of perennially frozen gro
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Chapter 3 Wind Action Wind erosion
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Chapter 3 Figure 3.32 Buttes and me
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Chapter 3 areas in which there is e
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Chapter 3 commonly falls in both in
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Chapter 3 Figure 3.35 Terminology o
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Chapter 3 disrupts their pattern of
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Chapter 3 is extended out to sea. B
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Chapter 3 (a) (b) Figure 3.37 (Cont
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Chapter 3 Table 3.2. Average beach
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Figure 3.38 Hurst Castle Spit with
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Chapter 3 windspeeds of approximate
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Chapter 3 Free oscillations develop
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Chapter 4 Groundwater Conditions an
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Chapter 4 Figure 4.1 Map of part of
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Chapter 4 buried upper surface of a
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Chapter 4 Table 4.2. Soil suction p
Page 338: Chapter 4 The factors affecting the
Page 342: Chapter 4 Table 4.3. Some examples
Page 346: Chapter 4 Permeability and porosity
Page 350: Chapter 4 Flow through Soils and Ro
Page 354: Chapter 4 General Equation of Flow
Page 358: Chapter 4 and k h H / k + H / k + H
Page 362: Chapter 4 Figure 4.8 Standard piezo
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Page 370: Geological mapping frequently forms
Page 374: Chapter 4 As groundwater moves from
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Page 382: Chapter 4 Figure 4.10 Yield drawdow
Page 386: Chapter 4 Figure 4.11 Flow net bene
Page 392: E n g i n e e r i n g G e o l o g y
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E n g i n e e r i n g G e o l o g y
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248 Table 5.21. Some properties of
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252 Table 5.22. Rock type classific
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272 Table 5.33. Some physical prope
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274 Table 5.34. Geomechanical prope
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280 Table 6.1. Some properties of B
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282 Table 6.2. Some properties of B
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372 Table 7.7a. Excerpts from the e
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374 Table 7.7b. Key to the engineer
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390 Table 8.1. Modified Mercalli Sc
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412 Figure 8.15 (a) (b) (a) Rip-rap
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488 Table 9.4. The rock mass rating
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490 Table 9.6. Classification of in
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532 Table 9.8. Typical compaction c
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I n d e x coastal protection, 410,
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I n d e x grout, 526, 548 groutabil
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I n d e x rebound, 513 recumbent fo
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