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236 D. Infield In recent times the greatest growth has been in grid-connected domestic PV systems. These typically range in size from 1 to 3 kW. Larger building-integrated PV systems are also increasingly common. Figure 13.11 shows a system comprising the south-facing façade of the public library at Mataro, near Barcelona. Figure 13.11 . Building-integrated PV system on Mataro public library. Figure 13.12 . Part of a large multi-megawatt array.
Solar <strong>Energy</strong>: Photovoltaics 237 Market support schemes in some countries, notably Germany and Spain, now mean that large field arrays of PV can be economically attractive. Such arrays may be fixed, as in Figure 13.12 , or tracking. Single-site installations of up to 10 MW are not uncommon now. 6 . Brief Summary of Research Challenges PV systems remain expensive and still need market support to compete with low-cost conventional electricity supply. The main research challenges are thus associated with significantly reducing costs, for the modules themselves but also for balance-of-system (BOS) costs, including in particular the inverters used for grid connection. At the same time there is pressure to increase conversion efficiency. Array mounting costs tend to reflect the total module area of the system and thus BOS costs can be reduced if efficiencies are increased. For the more novel, but potentially very low cost, dye and plastic cells there is a need to significantly increase efficiency and find designs that are long-term stable. One of the common challenges to both dye and polymer cells is a tendency to degrade when exposed to ultraviolet radiation, atmospheric humidity and oxygen, not ideal in a solar cell! Thin-film cell designs as outlined above are well developed; the primary research challenge for these is to develop better and lower cost production technologies. Achieving large area uniformity of deposition is particularly important because inhomogeneities result in cell mismatch losses which can significantly degrade the performance of thin-film modules. In the case of a-Si, large area manufacturing techniques developed for flat-screen displays are now finding application. As the PV market grows there is also an increasing need for accurate yield prediction tools, since potential system purchasers will want to understand more precisely the economics of such technology. In the early stages of the growth of grid-connected PV, purchasers tended to be enthusiasts less concerned with the financial aspects, but as the market matures this is expected to change. Accurate but easy-to-use yield estimation tools are wanted, and research is underway in many laboratories to address this issue. PV is expected to make a major contribution to electricity supply in the longer term. Even in countries like the UK, with a modest solar resource, calculations show that wide-scale deployment on existing roofs could generate a substantial proportion of electricity needs. A further area not explored in this brief chapter is that of solar concentrators. Researchers have shown that very-high-performance space-type cells could be combined with solar concentration to potentially produce cost-effective electricity. And there are also designs in which fluorescence is being used to capture and concentrate the light falling on a window to its edge, where it can be converted efficiently, in part because of its narrowband spectrum. The interested reader is referred to a review [8] for more information on these concepts and other recent developments in PV.
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Foreword Energy is the lifeblood of
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Preface Over the past 120 years, de
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Introduction The book Future Energy
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Introduction captains of industry,
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xx List of Contributors Chapter 6 L
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xxii List of Contributors Chapter 1
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Chapter 1 The Future of Oil and Gas
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The Future of Oil and Gas Fossil Fu
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p The Future of Oil and Gas Fossil
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Chapter 2 The Future of Clean Coal
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Nuclear 15.2% Hydro 16.0% The Futur
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Carbon concentrations / (ppm) 1100
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The Future of Clean Coal 3.2 . Comb
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The Future of Clean Coal Table 2.4
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storage The Future of Clean Coal 3.
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References The Future of Clean Coal
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The Future of Clean Coal 45. Ichiro
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Chapter 3 Nuclear Power (Fission) S
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Nuclear Power (Fission) Table 3.1 .
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Nuclear Power (Fission) Carbon emis
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Nuclear Power (Fission) On some set
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Nuclear Power (Fission) $33-41 for
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Nuclear Power (Fission) generated f
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Nuclear Power (Fission) The report
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Nuclear Power (Fission) A price of
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Nuclear Power (Fission) 2. Tarjanne
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60 F. Rahnama et al. their feedstoc
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62 F. Rahnama et al. Figure 4.1 . A
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64 F. Rahnama et al. Figure 4.2 . A
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66 F. Rahnama et al. Stage 1 Steam
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68 F. Rahnama et al. Number of prod
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70 F. Rahnama et al. Bitumen/(Mbpd)
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72 F. Rahnama et al. 7 . Supply Cos
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74 F. Rahnama et al. The supply cos
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Chapter 5 The Future of Methane and
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The Future of Methane and Coal to P
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Chapter 6 Wind Energy Lawrence Stau
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Capacity/MW 8000 7000 6000 5000 400
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Inputs Numerical weather prediction
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3H 3D 2H P: power H: height of towe
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Figure 6.10 . Erection of offshore
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Wind Energy 105 It has long been su
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cost/€ cent. (kW.h) �1 10 Figur
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Wind Energy 109 Wind farms ‘ cons
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Chapter 7 Tidal Current Energy: Ori
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Lunar orbit Figure 7.2 . Lunar cycl
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Tidal Current Energy: Origins and C
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Chapter 8 Wave Energy Raymond Alcor
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Wave crest Wave trough Water depth,
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Wave spectral density/(m 2 .Hz �1
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Wave Energy Figure 8.6 . World Ener
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Probability of exceedance 1.0 0.8 0
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Figure 8.10 . Indirect pneumatic de
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Sway Device in survival mode Signif
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Wave Energy 143 ● Ocean Energy Li
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Wave Energy 145 developers are seek
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Wave Energy 147 Reducing the peak l
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Wave Energy 149 One thing that is n
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152 P. Champagne waste [1]. This ve
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154 P. Champagne Table 9.1. Potenti
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156 P. Champagne manures have long
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158 P. Champagne 3. Bioenergy and B
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160 P. Champagne been explored as p
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162 P. Champagne For dry biomass co
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164 P. Champagne is burnt in excess
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166 P. Champagne include its poor t
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168 P. Champagne be gathered or pro
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170 P. Champagne 13. van Wyk , J. P
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172 R. Pitz-Paal factors, sun track
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174 R. Pitz-Paal Figure 10.2 . Theo
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176 R. Pitz-Paal Table 10.2 . Data
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178 R. Pitz-Paal Figure 10.5 . The
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180 R. Pitz-Paal Figure 10.6 . The
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182 R. Pitz-Paal Table 10.4 . Chara
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288 E. Allison high saturation, mar
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290 E. Allison 15 . Korea Min.. Com
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292 L. R. Grisham Whereas the nucle
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294 L. R. Grisham probably adequate
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296 L. R. Grisham structures in our
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298 L. R. Grisham with steady-state
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300 L. R. Grisham insignificant com
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Part IV New Aspects to Future Energ
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306 D. Tondeur and F. Teng set as i
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308 D. Tondeur and F. Teng produced
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310 D. Tondeur and F. Teng Pre-comb
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312 D. Tondeur and F. Teng Table 18
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316 D. Tondeur and F. Teng adsorbed
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320 D. Tondeur and F. Teng the basi
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322 D. Tondeur and F. Teng ● Ther
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324 D. Tondeur and F. Teng 3.3 . Ta
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326 D. Tondeur and F. Teng Utsira F
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328 D. Tondeur and F. Teng Figure 1
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330 D. Tondeur and F. Teng As regar
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Chapter 19 Smart Energy Houses of t
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Smart Energy Houses of the Future t
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Figure 19.2 . MVHR unit compact ins
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Smart Energy Houses of the Future 3
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Smart Energy Houses of the Future F
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Chapter 20 The Prospects for Electr
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The Prospects for Electricity and T
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�1 Primary energy consumption (GJ
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Index A Alberta’s bitumen reserve
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Energy effi cient buildings, solar
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Oil Recovery , 13 , 15 Oil Shale ,
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