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2 The Psychological Perspective of Cognition The chapter provides an overview of the last thirty years’ research in cognitive psychology with special reference to the representation of sensory information on the human mind. The interaction of visual, auditory and linguistic information in memory for understanding instances of the real world scenario has been elucidated in detail. The construction of mental imagery from the visual scenes and interpretation of the unknown scenes with such imagery have also been presented in this chapter. Neurophysiological evidences to support behavioral models of cognition have been provided throughout the chapter. The chapter ends with a discussion on a new ‘model of cognition’ that mimics the different mental states and their inter-relationship through reasoning and automated machine learning. The scope of AI in building the proposed model of cognition has also been briefly outlined. 2.1 Introduction The word ‘cognition’ generally refers to a faculty of mental activities dealing with abstraction of information from a real world scenario, their representation and
storage in memory and automatic recall [27]. It also includes construction of higher level percepts from primitive/low level information/knowledge, hereafter referred to as perception. The chapter is an outgrowth of the last thirty years’ research in neurocomputing and cognitive science. It elucidates various models of cognition to represent different types of sensory information and their integration on memory for understanding and reasoning with the real world context. It also outlines the process of construction of mental imagery from the real instances for subsequent usage in understanding complex three-dimensional objects. The chapter starts with the cognitive perspective of pattern recognition. It covers elementary matching of ‘sensory instances’ with identical ‘templates’ saved in memory. This is referred to as the ‘template matching theory’. The weakness of the template matching theory is outlined and the principle to overcome it through matching problem instances with stored minimal representational models (prototypes) is presented. An alternative featurebased approach for pattern recognition is also covered in this chapter. A more recent approach to 3-dimensional object recognition based on Marr’s theory is also presented here. The next topic, covered in the chapter, is concerned with cognitive models of memory. It includes the Atkinson-Shiffring’s model, the Tulving’s model and the outcome of the Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) research by Rumelhart and McClelland [30]. The next section in the chapter deals with mental imagery and the relationship among its components. It includes a discussion on the relationship between object shape versus imagery and ambiguous figures versus their imagery. Neuro-physiological support to building perception from imagery is also outlined in this section. Representation of spatial and temporal information and the concept of relative scaling is also presented here with a specialized structure, called cognitive maps. Understanding a problem and its representation in symbolic form is considered next in the chapter. Examples have been cited to demonstrate how a good representation serves an efficient solution to the problem. The next section proposes a new model of cognition based on its behavioral properties. The model consists of a set of mental states and their possible inter-dependence. The state transition graph representing the model of cognition includes 3 closed cycles, namely, i) the sensing-action cycle, ii) the acquisition-perception cycle, and iii) the sensing-acquisition-perceptionplanning-action cycle. Details of the functionaries of the different states of cognition will be undertaken in this section.
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Artificial Intelligence and Soft Co
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-P
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understanding of the subject. The r
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4. Structural organization of the b
Page 10 and 11: ACKNOWLEDGMENT The author gratefull
Page 12 and 13: To my parents, Mr. Sailen Konar and
Page 14 and 15: Chapter 2: The Psychological Perspe
Page 16 and 17: 5.4.2 Syntactic Methods for Theorem
Page 18 and 19: 9.4.4 Realization of Fuzzy Inferenc
Page 20 and 21: Chapter 14: Machine Learning Using
Page 22 and 23: 17.4.2.7 Fusing Multi-sensory Data
Page 24 and 25: 22.4 Parallelism at Knowledge Repre
Page 26 and 27: 1 Introduction to Artificial Intell
Page 28 and 29: instances of decision making [27],
Page 30 and 31: End. Begin state := new-states - ex
Page 32 and 33: (a) Generate and Test Approach: Thi
Page 34 and 35: this problem is useful for the foll
Page 36 and 37: disciplines. As a young discipline
Page 38 and 39: The bird and its attributes here ha
Page 40 and 41: [19] , Kosko [15] and Pedrycz [30]
Page 42 and 43: Reasoning in the presence of imprec
Page 44 and 45: where AI finds extensive applicatio
Page 46 and 47: M1 M2 M3 J2 J 1 8 5 J 2 J 1 2 8 J 2
Page 48 and 49: 1.5.3 The Modern Period The modern
Page 50 and 51: A B AND C D E AND Y Fig. 1.12: A Pe
Page 52 and 53: improve reliability by realizing fr
Page 54 and 55: in AI problems, it supports massive
Page 56 and 57: [7] Dean, T., Allen, J. and Aloimon
Page 58 and 59: [34] Rajendra, C. and Chaudhury, D.
Page 62 and 63: The scope of realization of the pro
Page 64 and 65: 2.2.3 Feature-based Approach for Pa
Page 66 and 67: From Sensory Registers Echoic Reg.
Page 68 and 69: cognitive memory and its utilizatio
Page 70 and 71: Tulving’s model bridges a potenti
Page 72 and 73: A " (a) (b) Fig. 2.6: The character
Page 74 and 75: his friend s facial image in memory
Page 76 and 77: sum need not be 180 degrees. Thus a
Page 78 and 79: same evening. Then he started medit
Page 80 and 81: construction of knowledge and its o
Page 82 and 83: saved in a magnetic media, which he
Page 84 and 85: set-point + error Controller Plant
Page 86 and 87: Cognitive science has emerged as a
Page 88 and 89: Further show that the Euclidean lea
Page 90 and 91: [4] Biswas, B., Mukherjee, A. K. an
Page 92 and 93: [28] Peterson, M. A., Kihlstrom, J.
Page 94 and 95: Production Systems, Logical Calculu
Page 96 and 97: against the data items of the WM. I
Page 98 and 99: Suppose the WM contains the data Bi
Page 100 and 101: To demonstrate the working principl
Page 102 and 103: i) Prefer rules for firing, where u
Page 104 and 105: In fig. 3.3, the antecedent clauses
Page 106 and 107: possible offspring states are gener
Page 108 and 109: Backward Reasoning: The backward re
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p q r s denotes joint premises t w
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3.11.1 Isolation of Knowledge and C
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state, as the predecessor states of
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[3] Buchanan, B. G. and Shortliffe,
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issues: first ‘what to search’
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We will now present two typical alg
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Further, the first state within the
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n1 n2 n3 n8 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f
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The iterative deepening search thus
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legal next states will also lie on
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End. Then push those children into
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Procedure Best-First-Search Begin 1
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End. have multiple parents; Under t
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node. Under this circumstance, the
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6. Pn- Γ the set of paths from nod
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Therefore, f * (n’) = g* (n’) +
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0 +10 B 1+3 C +4 D +5 E F G 2+2 3+1
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The above algorithm considers two d
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Step 1: X (7) Step 2: Step 3: U X (
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(iv) If all of the nodes connected
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If the values are propagated up to
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ii) the alpha value of any MAX node
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αmin =2 βmax =1 C αmin =1 e(n) =
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eductions. Constraint satisfaction
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5 The Logic of Propositions and Pre
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5.2 Formal Definitions The followin
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Definition 5.7: A propositional for
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5.4.1 Semantic Method for Theorem P
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8. p \/ (q Λ ¬ q) ⇔ p 9. p Λ (
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) AND, OR Removal: If the L.H.S. co
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Since all the terminals of the tree
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p v q ¬ q v r p v r ¬ p v s r v s
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Let AS = {A1, A2,, …..,An} be the
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4. If P is a WFF and X is not a qua
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original expression: ( ¬ P11 ∨
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S: = S ∪ {variable or constant /
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¬ Loves (john, mary) ¬Child (X)
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which implies that if q is true the
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ii) C is a ground instance of C [9]
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) p→ (q→ r) ⇔ (p Λ q) → r
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[6] Leinweber, D., “Knowledge-bas
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of a ‘classroom scene’ interpre
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Sits-on (Y, bench, classhour), Pers
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Sits-on (mita, bench, classhour). 3
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Teacher (X) Sub-goal fails Person (
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Definition 6.5: A definite goal is
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Example 6.5, presented below, illus
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6.6.1 Risk of Using CUT It is to be
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In the SLD tree for the Taxpayer pr
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6.9 Fixed Points in Non-Horn Clause
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6.11 Conclusions The main advantage
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preferred X50 >= 2, default X100
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7.1 Introduction Predicate Logic is
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proposed this logic and called it n
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We now present a few modal properti
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Expert Reasoning System New data Dy
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PR5: ¬Visits (Wife, market, Monday
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IN (n1) + IN (n2) + (n11) retracts
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may hold (and not must hold). An ex
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The resulting stable consequences t
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In this example, we call ψ = Bird
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important factor in non-monotonic r
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a) Boy(X) ∧ ¬ L ¬ Likes (X, cho
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8 Structured Approach to Knowledge
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predicate boy (jim). This can be re
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Consequently, we represent the abov
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Is-a Is-a Is-a Protozoa Bacteria Is
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Example 8.2: This example illustrat
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A common question that may be raise
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∴ q is true. 2) Defeasible deriva
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Examination Hall Seat Arrangement I
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Petri nets [5]. It, however, does n
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Since p1 and p 2 contain tokens and
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For building dependency structures,
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The most significant drawback of CD
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Once a script structure for a given
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[6] Nilsson, N. J., Principles of A
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techniques, we first introduce the
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of precision of data and certainty
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where D and S stand for disease and
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To illustrate the reasoning process
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2. It might happen that none of the
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One interesting property of Bayesia
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We now compute the messages that no
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The main steps [8], [12] of the bel
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Updating a node X thus involves upd
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j ↓ i→ round oval-shaped and MB
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Formally, the set of all possible o
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The orthogonal summation of belief
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The orthogonal summation operations
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integers, then we can definitely sa
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where a / b in fast-runner subset r
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where the “o” denotes a fuzzy A
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This may be formally written as µ
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cumulative maximum of the two succe
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“If you can manage to evaluate th
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[7] Shenoy, P. P. and Shafer, G.,
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10.1 Introduction Databases associa
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a finite set of places, D= {d1, d2
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µfast runner(x) 0.9 0.6 0.2 0.1 5
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present in the consequent part; Aug
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Procedure Cycle-detection (P, Q, m,
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Procedure Put-transition (Newlistk,
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The trace of the algorithm cycle- d
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p1 p2 pm n1 n2 nm Fig. 10.4: A tran
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where the elements qw / ∈ {0, 1}
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Q' m and Rm matrices. It may be not
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Definition 10.9: An arc is called p
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The procedure forward reasoning is
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In the above example, A, B, and C a
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n V (q k j ∧r j k ) to be close t
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Let us assume for the sake of simpl
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It is evident from the above distri
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= R b m o ((P ' f m) T o Nf c (t+1)
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Since such choice of Rfm and Rbm sa
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one step of belief revision in the
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10.9 Conclusions The chapter presen
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References [1] Bugarin, A. J. and B
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[24] Looney, C. G., "Fuzzy Petri ne
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11 Reasoning with Space and Time Th
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The other one is an extension by ne
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touches another, the common points
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Procedure Move-optimal (R , Startin
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at Jadavpur University verified thi
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µ above(θ) =sin 2 θ , when -∏
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c c a b q r a b (b) (a) d d p q r p
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11.5 Temporal Reasoning by Situatio
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Holds( now, rain-ceased) Axiom (3)
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Interpretation I Interpretation II
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Example 11.3: Prove that Ā(p) ≡
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11.6.3 Some Elementary Proofs in PT
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The second rule is generally called
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11.9 Conclusions The chapter demons
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12 Intelligent Planning This chapte
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sets opposite to the TV. So they oc
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where On (X, Y) means the object X
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this, let us consider the last prob
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(B), we generate the old state 3, w
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12.3 Least Commitment Planning The
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To start solving the problem, we fi
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We now have three partially ordered
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12.4 Hierarchical Task Network Plan
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d=0 d=1 d=2 d=3 Fig. 12.16: A hiera
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J1 J2 M1 M2 M3 or Job schedules J2
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job k from time 0. For example, the
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3. Design a hierarchical plan for t
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trainer, who supplies the input-out
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Definition 13.1: An object is an en
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The restriction of hypotheses can b
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Positive instances: 1. Object (larg
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To illustrate how LEX performs inte
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alive dead Z=A/W 2 1 0 0 1 2 Living
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where Pi denotes the proportion of
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3. Apply Mapping Function: Apply th
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determine the animals because it do
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simplest form of reinforcement lear
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Let us now assume that the game is
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How can we compute the utility valu
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13.5 Learning by Inductive Logic Pr
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know f ? These questions can be ans
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|H| (1-ε) m ≤ δ ⇒ m ≥ (1/ε
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[7] Michalski, R. S., “A theory a
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However, most biologists are of the
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The most common non-linear function
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(d) b1 a1 (e) c1 cj cq bi ah Fig.14
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transverse diameter, etc. as the in
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x 1 x 2 x n Penultimate layer ∑+F
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Drawbacks of back-propagation algor
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x1 x2 xn 14.6 Widrow-Hoff's Multi-l
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x 1 x 2 x 1 x 2 The training proces
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• If not, select another ADALINE,
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ni 1 = '1' output ( firing ). Each
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designed the weights (W) of a singl
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AND z1 s11 OR w11 w12 w 1n v 11 v12
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− ~ w X k, l ∼ = ⎡ ⎤ ⎢
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V x ∑ w O j = Sgn ( j+ ji i + A
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neural nets in the fields mentioned
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where the first summation is over a
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circuit,” IEEE Trans. on Circuits
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their joint usage in many problems,
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1 0 1 0 11 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 10 1 1 1
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15.2 Deterministic Explanation of H
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Thus, in a total of N selections wi
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and population size = 2, which mean
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The behavior of GA without mutation
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a = ∑ Lt (π 0 P n ) i i=1 n→
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Eθ GA Program Z1, Z2, Z3, Z4, X1,
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e [W1 W2 W3 W4 W5 W6] T and [ G1 G2
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function. So, GA in each evolution
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f(x) = Sin (x) + [x * x + y] 1/2 ca
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(EQ (DU(MT CS) (NOT CS)) (DU(MS NN)
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[4] Chakraborty, U. K. and Muehlenb
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16 Realizing Cognition Using Fuzzy
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Cognitive maps are generally used f
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Theorem 16.1: With initial values o
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Here W T is a transposed weight mat
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example, for moving one’s arm, th
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and the weight adaptation equation
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Xk+1 ∆Wk = α Ek οXk+1 T / ((Xk+
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d5 d9 d1 d6 d7 d8 d10 d11 d1=Front
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16.10 Conclusions and Future Direct
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[6] Kosko, B., “Fuzzy cognitive m
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however, have a narrow spectrum of
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contaminated with it. However, for
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1. Move the mask over the image, so
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∇ 2 (g * f ) = ( ∇ 2 g ) * f. W
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It may be noted that segmenting an
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machine has to narrate the game onl
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schematic diagram, briefly outlinin
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same process for all clusters, we g
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Level 1 Level 2 Level 0 Neuron Fig.
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I (u, v) YI Fig. 17.12: Camera mode
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epipolar planes meet the image plan
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(a, b, 1) Fig. 17.15: A 3-D represe
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case III: Planes not parallel to th
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yi = -fi (xi,* ai - 1*) + ( fi / a
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Sample Execution: This is a program
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U t11 t12 t13 t14 x V = t21 t22 t23
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obtained after linearizing measurem
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co-ordinate systems. The correspond
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18 Linguistic Perception Building p
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psychological aspects of understand
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S NP VP ART N VP the man VP V NP ki
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( S ( NP ( ( ART the ) (N man ) ) (
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Sentence: NP VP 1 6 NP: ART N 2 ART
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18.2.3.1 Learning For adaptation of
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context sensitive grammar is thus m
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Generally, we start the sentence S
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VP: V NP S0 S1 Tagged procedure V:=
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Laugh agent animal enjoyer entity p
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18.5 Discourse and Pragmatic Analys
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Thus the elements of communicative
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19 Problem Solving by Constraint Sa
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The recognition problem is the pres
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CSP deals with two classical proble
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= 10 10 = 10 = * Fig. 19.2 (b): Pro
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+ _ V1 R1 V 2 V3 I1 I2 I3 V R2 R3 S
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V = Now assuming the values of V, R
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On (A, Ta) ∧ On (B, Ta) ∧On (C,
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We now represent the neighboring re
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Step 1: (x
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such variable xj , xk, etc., attach
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of C3. If the constraints are liste
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The possible labels of the junction
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The main part of CSP is the formula
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20 Acquisition of Knowledge Acquisi
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invite the experts to attend a meet
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B E A= test ?, B = test results, C
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The database in fig. 20.2 is extrac
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20.5 Knowledge Refinement by Hebbia
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* * * n i ( t + 1) = n i ( t ) at t
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L(r,s) L(s,r) Y(r) Y(s) OS(r,s) n1
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The FPN of fig. 20.5 is formed with
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L(a,l) L(l,a) Y(a) Y(l) OS(a,l) n1
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[3] Cooke, N. and Macdonald, J.,
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21 Validation, Verification and Mai
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Here the problem characteristic is
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The chapter will cover various issu
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21.2.1 Qualitative Methods for Perf
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Paired t-test: Suppose xi ∈ X and
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Ancestor P = {p1,p2} Tr = {tr1,tr2,
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21.3.2 Inconsistencies in Knowledge
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q tr1 tr2 p1 p2 …………… pn
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A rule may also include a number of
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21.4 Maintenance of Knowledge Based
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control of data and knowledge is un
Page 642 and 643:
8. Stefik, M., Introduction to Know
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are not suitable for AI application
Page 646 and 647:
Because of non-determinism in the s
Page 648 and 649:
Procedure Partial-Expansion Begin W
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Step: Fig.22.4: A tree expanded by
Page 652 and 653:
Procedure Generous-Sharing Begin Fl
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To evaluate the performance of the
Page 656 and 657:
Definition 22.2: If the antecedents
Page 658 and 659:
a) AND -Parallelism Consider a logi
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However, given sufficient computing
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EPN = { P, Tr, D, f, m, A, a, I, o
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It is to be noted that if- then ope
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After the bindings of the variables
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F(x) ← A(X) , B(Y) (1) A(1) ← (
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the result produced by clause (2) m
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Else Flag:= true; End; Until no-of
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transition for the PTVVM. The PTVVM
Page 676 and 677:
For the sake of convenience, the pi
Page 678 and 679:
22.6 Conclusions The chapter starte
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Rule 3: S(X, Y) → Z (Y, X) Rule 4
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23 Case Study I: Building a System
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features in human faces and their r
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Definition 23.4: A linear edge segm
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lock containing edge. The productio
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Definition 23.13: The measure of di
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Partitioning Fe into Blocks Feature
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The fuzzy membership functions used
Page 696 and 697:
∆ • Fig. 23.4: The delta and th
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Thus we have altogether 6 different
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cross-section of the vocal tract, w
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23.4.2 Training a Multi-layered Neu
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information with their normalized v
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SR (Y, X) OR (M (X) ∧ M (Y) ∧ L
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procedure, however, no attempts hav
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23.5.5 Belief Revision and Limitcyc
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that the inferences will be minimal
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the formation of the FPN. The FPN o
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is then initiated for detecting the
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initial fuzzy beliefs at all places
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at all feasible x, y. Then estimate
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[13] Malmberg, B., Manual of Phonet
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24.1 Mobile Robots Mobile robots ar
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about its world. There exists ample
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the process, else it attempts to fi
Page 730 and 731:
Depending on the type of planning p
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WEST NORTH SOUTH Fig. 24.5: Represe
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NW child B NE child 'C' SW child 'D
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As observed from the node status, t
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In their evolutionary planner algor
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tuning of the path, such as avoidin
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S S= starting point, G= Goal point,
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Once the training is over, the syst
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N o Table 24.2: Training pattern sa
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24.9.1 Finite State Machine Finite
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occurrence of a state, but also in
Page 752 and 753:
24.10 An Application in a Soccer Pl
Page 754 and 755:
Exercises 1. Devise an algorithm fo
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[15] Meng, H. and Picton, P. D.,
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24 + The Expectations from the Read
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Appendix A How to Run the Sample Pr
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Predicate: LSR Argument1: S Argumen
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ANTECEDENT 1: Predicate: END conclu
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Rules properly arranged MAIN MENU:
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Level POSITION_FROM_LEFT NODE 1 1 H
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calculating membership values enter
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C > File currently in progress = ci
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When the goal is within concave obs
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path selected 160,160 and 240,240 T
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(a) Robot entering the room (b) Aft
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where tr and Outr denote the target
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∂E/∂Wsp = ∑r (∂E/∂Outr) (
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Proof of theorem10.2: For an oscill
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Thus, we get analogously , and 1 0
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= Q 'f m T o Rf m o ( Q ' f m o I )
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