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G) The “Holdup” Problem
In TCE, the combination of transaction-specific investments and an absence of expost
competition raises the possibility of a “holdup.” The “foot-in-the-door” strategy adopted
by some defense contractors offers an example. In that case, a low bid induces the
government to hire the contractor, but the contractor anticipates that as it works closely with
the government, and as it makes specific investments that facilitate that relationship (e.g.,
human and physical asset specificity), the government will become increasingly dependent
on that contractor.
For instance, since research and development contracts are necessarily incomplete
and unexpected requirements often arise, a contractor might anticipate higher returns from
later “holding up” the government by raising the price for “change orders” (changes in the
contract).11 Alternatively, the government has the power to hold up the firm by threatening
to “walk away” from the relationship—say if demand for the product or service falls due to
changes in the political or defense environment.
If individuals, firms, or organizations cannot be assured of realizing the full value of a
transaction-specific investment through a credible commitment not to partake in postcontractual
opportunistic behavior, then efficient productivity-, schedule- or performanceenhancing
specific investments might not be made. In turn, this reduces both the surplus
generated from a transaction and the incentive for parties to engage in that transaction.
The holdup problem arises whenever any party to a contract that involves a specific
asset worries that after it has sunk an investment, it may be forced to accept worse terms
ex-post, or that its investment might somehow be devalued by its contracting partner. Asset
specificity lies at the core of the holdup problem, particularly in the case of complex and
uncertain transactions that lead to incomplete contracting.
One concern is that the party that has less invested in the transaction may attempt to
expropriate some of the value of its partner’s specific investment(s) through ex-post
bargaining—say by threatening to walk away from the relationship. Thus, asset specificity
makes asset owners vulnerable to “free-riding” by their contracting partners.
For example, while on one hand, the Kadish Report (2005) talks about the challenge
of “motivating industry investments in future technology [and] encouraging industrial
investment in areas of importance to the Department” (p.14), on the other hand it observes
that government cost (budget cuts) and schedule (stretching out programs) instability has
been a problem in all system acquisitions since the Civil War. As a consequence,
transactions that require a significant degree of specific investments normally also require
contracts and governance structures that protect the investor against early termination or
opportunistic ex-post renegotiation.
11 Demsetz (1968), Stigler (1968) and Posner (1972) suggest repeated bidding as a means to prevent ex-post
opportunism in the case of government’s outsourcing a (regulated) natural monopoly. However, Williamson
(1985, Chap 13) emphasizes that switching costs—related to specific investments—pose a hazard associated
with government’s use of repeated bidding to outsource a natural monopoly. Once two parties have traded,
switching costs may increase due to specific training/experience and other investments in transaction-specific
assets, such that staying together can yield a surplus relative to trading with other parties.
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