Motherhood in Childhood

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that sexual and reproductive health education be made a compulsory and robust component of the official curricula in primary and secondary schools, including vocational schools (Center for Reproductive Rights, 2008a; See also ICPD, paragraph 11.9). Peers Peers can influence how adolescents view becoming pregnant, as well as their attitudes towards preventing pregnancy, dropping out of school or staying enrolled until graduation. Peer pressure can thus discourage early sexual debut and marriage, or it can reinforce the likelihood of early and unprotected sexual activity (Chandra-Mouli et al., 2013). “I didn’t know he intended to impregnate me this time, I remember our plan was when I turn 18… I was not ready to have a baby yet, which made me think of not going through with my pregnancy, but my friends insisted I should since my partner and I were already living together… But I knew I was not really ready yet.” K.C., 18, pregnant at 17, the Philippines Partners Another influence is a girl’s sexual partner or spouse, including his age and his views on marriage, sex, gender roles, contraception, pregnancy and childbearing. Research on the early sexual activity of adolescent males shows that unhealthy perceptions about sex, including seeing women as sexual objects, viewing sex as performance-oriented and using pressure or force to obtain sex, begin in adolescence and may continue into adulthood. Perceptions of masculinity among young men and adolescent boys are a driving force for male risk-taking behaviour, including unsafe sexual practices. Men and boys: partners in the process Strengthening opportunities for boys and young men to participate in supporting gender-equality efforts can have an impact not only on women and girls but also on their own lives (UNFPA 2013b). Boys and men are often socialized to believe that the enjoyment of sexual relations is viewed as their prerogative, and they are taught to take the lead in their sexual relationships, creating significant pressure (and insecurity). Traditional views of what it means to be a man can encourage men to seek out multiple sexual partnerships and to take sexual risks (UNFPA, 2012). Though women more consistently suffer the negative effects of harmful gender norms across their lifetimes, societies also socialize their men, male adolescents and boys in ways that drive poor sexual and reproductive health outcomes. In many societies, men are encouraged to assert their manhood by taking risks, asserting their toughness, enduring pain, being independent providers, and having multiple sex partners. The roles and 46 CHAPTER 3: PRESSURES FROM MANY DIRECTIONS
esponsibilities of breadwinner and head of the household are inculcated into boys and men; fulfilling these behaviours and roles are dominant ways to affirm one’s manhood. Gender norms as a rule establish and reinforce women’s subordination to men and drive poor sexual and reproductive health outcomes for both men and women. Women are often prevented from learning about their rights and from obtaining the resources that could help them plan their lives and families, sustain their advancement in school, and support their participation in the formal economy (Greene and Levack, 2010). Men are often not offered most sources of sexual and reproductive health information and services and may develop the sense that planning families is not their domain, but rather is women’s responsibility. In the context of sexual and reproductive health and reproductive rights, there is growing recognition among the international community that addressing gender inequities in health, promoting sexual and reproductive health and reproductive rights, and preventing HIV and gender-based violence at all levels in society is not possible without efforts to directly engage men and boys as partners in these processes (International Planned Parenthood Federation, 2010). EXCERPTS FROM THE ICPD PROGRAMME OF ACTION ON GENDER EQUALITY The objectives are to achieve equality and equity based on harmonious partnership between men and women and enable women to realize their full potential; to ensure the enhancement of women’s contributions to sustainable development through their full involvement in policy- and decision-making processes at all stages…; to ensure that all women, as well as men, are provided with the education necessary for them to meet their basic human needs and to exercise their human rights. Countries should act to empower women and should take steps to eliminate inequalities between men and women as soon as possible by establishing mechanisms for women’s equal participation and equitable representation at all levels of the political process and public life; promoting the fulfilment of women’s potential through education, skill development and employment, giving paramount importance to the elimination of poverty, illiteracy and ill health among women; eliminating all practices that discriminate against women; assisting women to establish and realize their rights, including those that relate to reproductive and sexual health… (Programme of Action, paragraphs 4.1–4.4) especially whether the mother and father married as children or whether the mother became pregnant as an adolescent. Other family-level determinants include the education level of adults and their expectations for their children, the level of communication within the household, the intensity of cultural and religious values, and the views of family decision makers on gender roles and child marriage. Family-level determinants Unless a girl lives in a child-headed household or is homeless, she is going to be influenced by her family or guardian. Family-level determinants include the stability and cohesiveness of the family; the degree to which there is conflict or violence in the home; the extent of household poverty or wealth; the presence of role models; and the reproductive history of parents, Child marriage The prevalence of child marriage depends in part on national policies and laws and their enforcement, on community-level norms and on the extent of poverty in a country, but it is at the level of the family where decisions are made about forcing a child into a marriage or union. By definition, child marriage occurs when at least one of the partners is under age 18. Every THE STATE OF WORLD POPULATION 2013 47
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Motherhood in Childhood Facing the
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state of world population 2013 Moth
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to health. Conversely, a girl who i
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Towards empowered adolescent girls
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Indicators Monitoring ICPD goals: s
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Monitoring Monitoring ICPD ICPD Goa
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Monitoring ICPD Goals Demographic -
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Monitoring ICPD Goals - Selected In
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Bibliography Abdella A. et al. 2013
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Delivering a world where every preg
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