Art Criticism - The State University of New York

sarily connected to hysteria itself. Charcot's hysterics were highly impressionable,
and simply imitating the epileptics in the room, identifying with them.
Along with such seizures, which Charcot termed "hystero-epilepsy" he also
observed other outward or physiognomic expressions of hysteria. These expressions
conform to the topographical model of hysteria. They include: narrowing
of the field of vision, increased skin sensitivity, fainting episodes,
rigidity of muscles, and distinct bodily positions, which Charcot often sketched
or had photographedY Internal symptoms of hysteria that Charcot recognized
included spontaneous pains in the mammary glands and ovaries, and
migraines. Independence, rebelliousness, assertiveness and imagination were
also traits Charcot noted. These characteristics combined to form what he
called the "stigmata" of hysteria. Charcot was thus able to define hysteria as a
"specific neurosis that manifests itself by periodic attacks and permanent stigmata."12
Charcot's hysterical patients would "perform" these stigmata for him
while he gave his famous Tuesday lectures at Salpetriere. Unfortunately, itdid
not occur to Charcot until much later in his life that his patients might have
been performing because they were conditioned to do so by his assistants and
staff. Such patient conditioning created great controversy around Charcot's
theories and interpretations, especially when they involved use of hypnotism.13
With this later realization, Charcot's work became instrumental in
grounding hysteria as a neurosis formed in part out of a previous psychic
trauma. For this reason, he advised that hysterics be removed from
psychopathogenic environments, because their exposure to traumatic events
would be very great there. 14 Charcot's work on hysteria was enormously influential
on Sigmund Freud, who in fact was a student at the Tuesday lectures.
When Charcot stated "in the manner of suggestion, what is done can be
undone," one can almost see Freud's ears perk up. This would later be a major
grounding point for his own theories on hysteria.
It is important to note that Charcot was a serious supporter of the
view that hysteria was not only to be found in the female sex. Although
Salpetriere was a hospital for women (most of Charcot's patients were female)
this did not prevent him from acknowledging the presence of hysteria in males.
During and after Charcot's life, many practicing doctors and physicians did
not recognize male hysteria because they strictly abided by the definition of
hysteria as "wandering uterus." Thus doctors tended to follow the logic that
males, in their obvious lack of a uterus, could not possibly be proper hysterics.
However, many doctors did regard male manifestations of hysteria as hypochondriasis
or, later, "Battle Fatigue."15 Max Nordau equated male hysteria
with degeneration.
What is most captivating in Charcot's work is the photographs of his
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