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Black Sun, High Flame, and Flood the time of year it took place and the coincidence of other negative factors such as bad weather, failing fish stocks, or disease (in humans or animals)—factors that in combination could produce catastrophic shocks to the economic system. It is clear that Icelandic society dealt with such shocks on a routine basis. Some were exacerbated by volcanic eruptions and some were not, but in all cases the socioeconomic system recovered. This suggests that human suffering on a massive scale is not necessarily a measure of system resilience (or failure); societies can absorb enormous and inhuman pain and suffering without failing. Volcanic activity has occurred within thirty active volcanic systems that collectively make up the volcanic zones that cover about one-third of Iceland (figure 3.1). Comparatively little of this area is settled. Eruptions are common, and there is geological evidence or written accounts (or both) for around 205 eruptions since the settlement of Iceland in the late ninth century AD (Thordarson and Larsen 2007). The exact number will never be known; but since two-thirds of the records come from the latter half of the settlement period (post–ca. AD 1500), when all sources of evidence are more abundant and clear, the total is probably closer to 300 than to 200 events. Volcanic Hazards Volcanic activity in Iceland is varied and includes nearly all of the types of volcanoes and styles of eruptions known on earth (Thórarinsson 1981; Thórarinsson and Saemundsson 1979). Eruptions range from the explosive (in which over 95% of the volcanic products are tephra) to the effusive (where over 95% of the products are lava). Scales have varied by over 10 orders of magnitude, from the tiny (ca. 1 m 3 Dense Rock Equivalent [DRE] erupted through a geothermal borehole) to the substantial (ca. 20 km 3 DRE flood lava eruptions of Eldgjá in AD 934–938 and Laki in AD 1783–1784; Thordarson and Larsen 2007). Settings are also varied, with some fissures in dry locations and others in areas affected by high groundwaters, beneath glacier ice, or in the sea. The presence of water or ice has major implications, as it can turn potentially effusive activity explosive, create both floods and debris flows, and thus be a major determinant of hazard. Potential volcanic hazards can be broadly grouped into those from lava, floods (of water melted from glaciers or dammed in rivers and lahars), fallout (ash fall and pyroclastic flows), pollution (such as fluorine poisoning), and climatic perturbation (Gudmundsson et al. 2008). These hazards have very different constraints and may occur at irregular intervals ranging from decades to millennia. Potential impacts are variable depending on environmental and social contexts and are best viewed alongside other natural hazards, from disease to extreme weather. The scale of volcanic hazards can be comparatively 69
Andrew Dugmore and Orri Vésteinsson 3.1. Iceland, showing features named in the text. Cartography by Richard Streeter. limited; they can affect a small region, or the hazards can be felt across the entire island and much farther afield (Grattan, Durand, and Taylor 2003; Grattan et al. 2003; Witham and Oppenheimer 2004). It is notable that despite over 200 volcanic events that could have led to a disaster, few have killed people either directly or indirectly. Laki in AD 1783 indirectly led to the deaths of thousands of Icelanders because out-gassing from the eruption created a toxic haze that caused the deaths of many livestock and contributed to the ensuing 70
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Surviving Sudden Environmental Chan
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© 2012 by the University Press of
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Contents Chapter 5. Collation, Corr
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Thomas H. McGovern Maine, on Octobe
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Thomas H. McGovern as this excellen
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Thomas H. McGovern McGovern, Thomas
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Chapter Abstracts eruptions, earthq
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Chapter Abstracts this is so becaus
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Chapter Abstracts and concomitant f
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Chapter Abstracts Chapter 8 Long-Te
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Surviving Sudden Environmental Chan
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Payson Sheets and Jago Cooper The m
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Payson Sheets and Jago Cooper techn
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Payson Sheets and Jago Cooper The b
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Payson Sheets and Jago Cooper or mi
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Payson Sheets and Jago Cooper tial
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Payson Sheets and Jago Cooper to co
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Payson Sheets and Jago Cooper first
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Payson Sheets and Jago Cooper and-c
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Page 55 and 56: Ben Fitzhugh but reoccupation proce
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Page 59 and 60: Ben Fitzhugh densely populated regi
Page 61 and 62: Ben Fitzhugh of sustainable settlem
Page 63 and 64: Ben Fitzhugh Blaikie, P., T. Cannon
Page 65 and 66: Ben Fitzhugh Marquardt, W. H. 1988
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Page 69 and 70: Payson Sheets a society, or which c
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Page 77 and 78: Payson Sheets The Barriles society
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Page 81 and 82: Payson Sheets communities around th
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Page 85 and 86: Payson Sheets successful mitigation
Page 87 and 88: Payson Sheets Michels, Joe 1979 A H
Page 89 and 90: Payson Sheets Understanding Hazards
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Page 127 and 128: Jago Cooper but at this stage the f
Page 129 and 130: Jago Cooper paleoenvironmental sett
Page 131 and 132: Jago Cooper Summary and Future Rese
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Page 135 and 136: Jago Cooper Goudie, Andrew 2006 The
Page 137 and 138: Jago Cooper Redman, Charles L., and
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Collation, Correlation, and Causati
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Emily McClung de Tapia 6.1. Prehisp
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Emily McClung de Tapia 6.2. Locatio
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Emily McClung de Tapia the importan
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Emily McClung de Tapia remains, sug
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Emily McClung de Tapia 6.3. Erosion
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Emily McClung de Tapia construction
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Emily McClung de Tapia indigenous p
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6.4. Flooding of the major highway
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Emily McClung de Tapia D. Qin, M. M
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Emily McClung de Tapia Lounejeva-Ba
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Emily McClung de Tapia Rivera-Uria,
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Seven Domination and Resilience in
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Domination and Resilience in Bronze
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Nelson et al. Mexico (figure 8.1) t
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Nelson et al. 8.2. Images that illu
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Nelson et al. Specifically, we aske
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Nelson et al. its value in making a
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Nelson et al. 8.4). However, an ext
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Nelson et al. floodwater gave way t
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Nelson et al. 8.6. A Classic Mimbre
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Nelson et al. 3. Isolation can cont
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Nelson et al. Folke, Carl 2006 Resi
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Nelson et al. Tiempos Prehispánico
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Nelson et al. Turney, Omar 1929 Pre
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Nine Social Evolution, Hazards, and
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Social Evolution, Hazards, and Resi
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ten Global Environmental Change, Re
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Global Environmental Change, Resili
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Contributors David A. Abbott Arizon
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Contributors Jeffrey Quilter Harvar
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Index Bárdarbunga volcano, 72 Barr
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Index Hazards, 3, 6, 42, 92, 106, 2
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Index Paramushir Island, 25 Pastora
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Index social-ecological structure,
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