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Noun Class and Number in Kiowa-Tanoan 67 The same contrast obtains between the subclasses of IV, IVb being a collective, and IVc a distributive, plural (Watkins 1984:90-91). (6)-(7), repeated here, illustrate this difference. The form tó: means ‘house’ when a IVb noun, a set of parts viewed as a collective unit, but ‘tepee’ when IVc, a single unit viewed as distributed multiple parts. (6) (Watkins 1984:90-91) a. (IVb) tó: Ø-cél house 3S-stand.sg/du ‘There is a house standing there.’ b. (IVb) tó: ę̀-cél house 3D-stand.sg/du ‘There are houses (du) standing there.’ c. (IVb) tó: Ø-sɔ́l house 3S-stand.Pl ‘There are houses (Pl) standing there.’ (7) (Watkins 1984: 90-91) (IVc) tó: gyà-sɔ́l house 3P-stand.Pl ‘There is a tepee standing there/There are tepees (du/Pl) standing there.’ Class IVc always marks its members as plural, nouns such as kut ‘book’, tó: ‘tepee’, and hóldà ‘dress, shirt’ being construed as composed of multiple constituent parts (Merrifield 1959: 270, Watkins 1984:91) no matter how many of the overall units there are. Despite some early controversy over the relatedness of Kiowa to the other Tanoan languages (cf. Trager & Trager 1959, Whorf & Trager 1937), a glance at the noun class system of Kiowa described here and the following descriptions of the Tanoan languages should leave the reader with no reservations over the connection, even without detailed sound correspondences and formal reconstructions (cf. Hale 1962, 1967; Watkins 1977, 1978, 1982, 1996). Towa, being the most similar to Kiowa in its noun class system, will be described next. 2.2. TOWA. Towa (Pueblo of Jemez, New Mexico), like Kiowa, uses a basic-inverse number marking system, the patterns of which analysts have used to divide all nouns into four classes comparable to those in Kiowa. The primary sources for these data are two dissertations (Sprott 1992, Yumitani 1998), which explicitly state the noun classes for several, although still a very limited set of, nouns. Until these two works, Towa remained the most fieldwork and linguistic analysis in indigenous languages of the americas
Noun Class and Number in Kiowa-Tanoan 68 poorly described of the Pueblo languages. Jemez is one of the Pueblos most closed to linguistic work, but fortunately has a very high rate of transmission to the younger generations. This renders the need for explicit language revitalization efforts and studies by outside researchers a low priority from the official community’s perspective. The Towa inverse suffix is -š, 11 and like the inverse in Kiowa, its semantics is dependent upon the noun to which it attaches. Class I nouns use the basic form for singular and the inverse for dual and plural. Class II has the inverse in the singular and dual and the basic form in the plural. Class III is basic for singular and plural and inverse for dual. Class IV nouns never take the inverse suffix. (10) lays out the Towa pattern (data from Yumitani 1998). (10) Basic Inverse I hį́: ‘person’ (sg) hį́:míš ‘people’ (du/Pl) II pǫ́: ‘roads’ (Pl) pǫ́:š road; roads (du) III k w ǫ́: ‘tooth’ (sg); ‘teeth’ (Pl) k w ǫ́:š ‘teeth’ (du) IV p’æ̂ ‘water’ Notice that the dual in Towa is inverse, the opposite of what is found in Kiowa, which shows the basic number in the dual. Concomitant to this difference, class III is basic in the singular and plural compared to inverse in Kiowa. This comparison will be further discussed in section 3.1. Although the distribution of the inverse suffix is more predictive for noun class in Towa than it is in Kiowa, the pronominal prefix system again appears to be the best basis for assigning nouns to classes. To illustrate using the intransitive third person prefixes, there are again four formal numbers distinguished: singular (Ø-), dual (įl-), plural (ɨl-), and (non-dual) inverse (e-). Although the dual always takes the inverse suffix on nouns, it takes the dual prefix in its pronominal indexation. The inverse prefix listed here occurs when the argument marked as inverse is non-dual. The plural prefix is primarily used only with some class II and III nouns, where it contrasts with the use of the singular prefix when there are plural referents. The following sentences demonstrate the noun classes by use of the inverse suffix and pronominal prefixes (examples from Yumitani 1998:100). Class I: Basic in the singular with a singular pronominal prefix. Inverse suffix on the noun with a dual pronominal prefix in the dual. Inverse suffix and pronominal prefix in the plural. (11) a. pǽ̨: Ø-ší deer 3S-fall.sg/du ‘A deer fell off.’ 11 The language maintains a CV(:) syllable structure and the -š is frequently omitted when not utterance-final. Since the suffix does cause phonological changes in the preceding and following syllables, however, this presence of the inverse marker is still preserved (cf. Yumitani 1998:68-81). fieldwork and linguistic analysis in indigenous languages of the americas
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Fieldwork and Linguistic Analysis i
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Contents Foreword iii Marianne Mith
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Another fading boundary is that bet
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languages: Akawaio (Kapóng), Akuri
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Acknowledgments The editors are dee
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Introduction 2 COMMUNITY COLLABORAT
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Introduction 4 confined themselves
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Introduction 6 Often, what turns ou
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Introduction 8 references boas, fra
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The Discourse Marker vet in Ixil Ma
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Page 47 and 48: Classifying Clitics in Sm’algyax
Page 71 and 72: Noun Class and Number in Kiowa-Tano
Page 79: Noun Class and Number in Kiowa-Tano
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Page 105 and 106: The Story of *ȏ in the Cariban Fam
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The Story of *ȏ in the Cariban Fam
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124 fieldwork and linguistic analys
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Zapotec Determiners 126 System of O
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Zapotec Determiners 128 and most at
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Zapotec Determiners 130 do often oc
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Zapotec Determiners 132 The minimal
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Zapotec Determiners 134 (14) (MMC,
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Zapotec Determiners 136 In the text
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Zapotec Determiners 138 b. bɛn gun
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Zapotec Determiners 140 rɛ’ɛbi-
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Zapotec Determiners 142 (29) (LGL,
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Zapotec Determiners 144 APPENDIX: T
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Middles and Reflexives in Yucatec M
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Dena’ina Discourse Markers 174 On
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Dena’ina Discourse Markers 176 (4
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Dena’ina Discourse Markers 178
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Dena’ina Discourse Markers 180 5
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Dena’ina Discourse Markers 190 Th
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Dena’ina Discourse Markers 194 Q
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Dena’ina Discourse Markers 198 co
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Dena’ina Discourse Markers 200 RE
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Dena’ina Discourse Markers 202 Pe
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Gemination and Tonal Feet in Welede
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Dependent Verbs in Sierra Popoluca
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