Reducing Adolescent Sexual Risk: A Theoretical - ETR Associates

partner does not mind using a condom) and thenin more challenging situations (e.g., the partnerreally does not want to use a condom).5. Learning is promoted when multiple examplesand perspectives are provided. When possible,multiple examples are beneficial (Merrill 1994).These can both reinforce the principle or conceptbeing illustrated and increase the chancesthat students will relate to one or more of them.Similarly, each example should be approachedfrom multiple perspectives so that students seeand hear different perspectives, concepts arereinforced and students can integrate the material(Spiro, Feltovich et al. 1992).6. Learning is promoted when existing knowledgeis activated as a foundation for new knowledge(Blair and Caine 1995; Merrill 2002). Learningis encouraged when students are directed to recallor apply knowledge from past instruction or pastexperience that can be used as a foundation forthe new knowledge. For example, giving studentsthe opportunity to demonstrate what they alreadyknow also can be an effective way to activelyengage them, refresh their memories and possiblyclarify their thinking.To the extent feasible, students should becomeexplicitly aware of their preconceptions and priorlearning and become willing both to build uponthat knowledge and to unlearn when necessary.For example, lessons should include a discussionof myths about pregnancy commonly held byyoung people, as well as activities to reduce exaggeratedmisperceptions of peer sexual activity.7. Learning is promoted when students areactively engaged in solving problems (Jonassen1999; Nelson 1999; Merrill 2002). Learning isencouraged when students are actively rather thanpassively addressing real problems (Angelo 1998).Students need to participate in instructionalactivities, not listen passively to the provisionof information. This means that the programneeds to include a variety of interactive activities,such as games, simulations and roleplays. Italso should include activities in which studentsare given dilemmas about whether or not theyshould engage in sexual activity or use protectionand must make decisions (individually or in smallgroups) about those choices. Alternatively, programsshould include activities in which studentsare given scenarios and must advise participantsin the scenarios about what to do.8. Learning is promoted when students organizetheir new concepts and skills. If students areprovided with a useful structure to organize theirnew knowledge or skills, they will learn betterthan if the facts or skills are not attached to aframework and are not organized (Andre 1997).One very important structure is the clear prescriptivemessage about responsible sexual behaviorthat should be given to the students. Facts,concepts and skills should be continually linkedto that message. For example, facts about theprobabilities and consequences of pregnancy and/or STDs should be linked to abstinence and useof protection against pregnancy and STDs. If afact, concept or skill is not related to that message,then its inclusion should be questioned.Another way to organize concepts or skills isto use mnemonic devices. For example, in thecurriculum All4You!, “PSST” is used to helpstudents learn three steps for refusing undesiredsexual activity: Pick your limit, Say it strong,Suggest something else to do, and Tell why(Coyle 2006). Similarly, in Making Proud Choices,“SWAT” is used to help students remember fourdifferent steps of a refusal skill model: Say no,explain Why, offer an Alternative, and Talk it out(Jemmott, Jemmott III et al. 2002).9. Learning is promoted when new knowledgeis applied multiple times to solve problems(Merrill 2002). This is consistent with the oldadage “practice makes perfect” (Gardner 1999).As stated above, the problems should be relevantto the students and consistent with the instructionalgoals (Schwartz, Lin et al. 1999). They alsoshould be somewhat varied and provide a rangeof situations. For example, lessons might describedifferent scenarios in which undesired sexualactivity might take place and then ask students todevelop different methods of avoiding or gettingChapter 3 Increasing Knowledge 39