Reducing Adolescent Sexual Risk: A Theoretical - ETR Associates

field (e.g., psychology versus marketing), there aredifferent numbers of stages. However, many of theminclude the following steps during attitude change(McGuire 1999):1. Being exposed to a message or intervention2. Paying attention to a message or intervention3. Comprehending the arguments or message4. Accepting the argument or message5. Integrating the argument into existing beliefs6. Eliciting positive or negative thoughts about thenew or revised beliefs7. Retaining the attitudeThese steps in attitude change may take place veryquickly, perhaps within minutes or seconds, but arestill important because they constitute a set of concernsthat each intervention needs to address. Thatis, the intervention should make sure that the targetpopulation is exposed to the message, pays attentionto it, comprehends it, accepts it, integrates it, feelsgood about it and retains it.Use of fear in messages to change attitudes andvalues. Although there has been some debate aboutthe impact of fear in messages, there may be a growingconsensus about its effects. If messages do notincrease fear of possible negative consequences at all,then they may not be effective. If messages increasefear too much without providing a clear method ofavoiding the feared outcome, then fear may causepeople to ignore the message or to become paralyzedwith inaction. What is most effective is a reasonablecombination of fear arousal, presented with clear,achievable directions for how to avoid the negativeoutcome (Witte and Allen 2000).Use of cognitive dissonance. In psychology, cognitivedissonance is an uncomfortable feeling or stresscaused by holding two contradictory attitudes, valuesor beliefs simultaneously. The theory of cognitivedissonance proposes that people have a naturaldesire to reduce this dissonance by modifying oneor more of the existing attitudes, values or beliefs(Festinger 1957). Thus, one effective way of changingattitudes is to demonstrate that specific attitudesare inconsistent with more fundamental and importantvalues or attitudes, e.g., demonstrating thathaving unprotected sex is inconsistent with valuesand goals involving higher education and employmentbefore parenting.Summary of Principles• Attitudes that result from thoughtful criticalexamination of arguments new to an individualtend to be stronger, last longer, be more resistantto change and have a greater impact on behaviorthan do attitudes that result from little or nothought.• When people are more able and motivated toconsider new arguments, they are more likely tothoughtfully consider them.• Creating desired environmental conditions (e.g.,lack of distractions or disruptions) can increasepeople’s ability to thoughtfully consider newarguments.• When issues are considered personally relevant,attitudes have a greater impact on behavior.• When arguments reveal inconsistencies betweendeeply held attitudes and values on the one handand behavior on the other, the arguments aremore likely to lead to behavior change.• When arguments are appropriate for the stage ofchange, they may be more effective.• Tailoring can increase the ability and motivationto thoughtfully process a message and to accept it.It also can focus more precisely on those attitudesthat most need to be changed.• Including strong arguments in messages isimportant.• Both arguments and messages should be pilottested to see which are strongest for particulargroups.• When arguments are presented by someone withaccepted expertise and respect, they are morelikely to be considered and accepted.60 Reducing Adolescent Sexual Risk: A Theoretical Guide for Developing and Adapting Curriculum-Based Programs