Online Papers - Brian Weatherson

Questioning Contextualism 407
that Moriarty believes there is a trap planned, but insists that because Moriarty is ‘just
guessing’ that this belief does not amount to knowledge. What really needs explaining
is the difference between Holmes’s two answers, and this other use of knowledge
questions doesn’t seem sufficient to generate that explanation.
Objection: There is no explanation offered here for the data, and we shouldn’t give
up an explanatory theory without an explanation of why it fails.
Reply: The best way to explain the data is to look at some differences in our attitudes
towards questions containing ‘knows’ and questions containing other terms for
which Type B pragmatism is plausibly true. I’ll just go over the difference between
‘knows’ and ‘ready’, the point I’m making easily generalises to the other cases.
Different people may be concerned with different bits of preparation, so they
may (speaker) mean different things by X is ready. But neither will regard the other
as making a mistake when they focus on a particular bit of preparing to talk about
by saying X is ready. And this is true even if they think that the person should be
thinking about something else that X is preparing.
Knowledge cases are not like that. Different people may have different standards
for knowledge, so perhaps they may (speaker) mean different things by A knows that
p, because they will communicate that A has met their preferred standards for knowledge.
But in these cases, each will regard the other as making a mistake. Standards
for knowledge aren’t the kind of thing we say people can differ on without making
a mistake, in the way we do (within reason) say that different people can have different
immediate goals (e.g. about what to have for dinner) without making a mistake.
That explains why we don’t just adopt our questioners standards for knowledge when
answering their knowledge questions.
Objection: In section 2 it was argued that questions involving ‘knows’ should have
the three properties because questions involving other terms for which Type B pragmatism
is true have the properties. But this argument by analogy may be flawed. All
those terms are ‘indexical’ in John MacFarlane’s sense (MacFarlane, 2009). That is,
the content of any utterance of them varies with the context. But not all Type B pragmatist
theories are indexical, and this argument does not tell against a non-indexical
Type B pragmatism.
Reply: The view under consideration says that all utterances of ‘S knows that p’ express
the same proposition, namely that S knows that p. But the view is Type B
because it says that proposition can be true relative to some contexts and false relative
to other contexts, just as temporalists about propositions say that a proposition
can be true at some times and false at other times, and the utterance is true iff the
proposition is true in the context of the utterance. This is a Type B view, and I agree
that the argument by analogy in section 2 is powerless against it.
But that argument was not the only argument that Type B views are committed
to questions involving ‘knows’ having the three properties. There was also an argument,
at the end of section 1, from purely theoretical considerations. It turns out this