2008 Clinical Practice Guidelines - Canadian Diabetes Association

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2008 CLINICAL PRACTICE GUIDELINES S68 dose of insulin should subsequently be adjusted based on ongoing acidosis (26), using the plasma anion gap or beta- OHB measurements. Plasma glucose levels will fall due to multiple mechanisms, including ECFV re-expansion (27), glucose losses via osmotic diuresis (17) and insulin-mediated reduced glucose production and increased cellular uptake of glucose. Once plasma glucose reaches 14.0 mmol/L, IV glucose should be started to avoid hypoglycemia, targeting a plasma glucose of 12.0 to 14.0 mmol/L. Similar doses of IV insulin can be used to treat HHS, although subjects are not acidemic and the fall in plasma glucose concentration is predominantly due to re-expansion of ECFV and osmotic diuresis (27). Insulin has been withheld successfully in HHS (28), but generally its use is recommended to reduce plasma glucose levels (5,6). Use of IV sodium bicarbonate to treat acidosis did not affect outcome in randomized controlled trials (29-31). Sodium bicarbonate therapy can be considered in adult patients in shock or with arterial pH ≤7.0. For example, one can administer 1 ampoule (50 mmol) of sodium bicarbonate added to 200 mL of D5W (or sterile water, if available) over 1 hour, repeated every 1 to 2 hours until pH is ≥7.0 (5,6). Potential risks associated with the use of sodium bicarbonate include hypokalemia (32) and delayed occurrence of metabolic alkalosis. Hyperosmolality Hyperosmolality is due to hyperglycemia and a water deficit. However, serum sodium concentration may be reduced due to shift of water out of cells. The concentration of sodium needs to be corrected for the level of glycemia to determine if there is also a water deficit (see Figure 1). In patients with DKA, plasma osmolality is usually ≤320 mmol/kg. In HHS, plasma osmolality is typically >320 mmol/kg. Because of the risk of CE with rapid reductions in osmolality (33), it has been recommended that the plasma osmolality be lowered no faster than 3 mmol/kg/hour (5,6). This can be achieved by monitoring plasma osmolality, by adding glucose to the infusions when plasma glucose reaches 14.0 mmol/L to maintain it at that level, and selecting the correct concentration of IV saline. Typically, after volume re-expansion, IV fluid is switched to half-normal saline because urinary losses of electrolytes in the setting of osmotic diuresis are usually hypotonic. The potassium in the infusion will also add to the osmolality. If osmolality falls too rapidly despite the administration of glucose, consideration should be given to increasing the sodium concentration of the infusing solution (5,6). Water imbalances can also be monitored using the corrected plasma sodium. Phosphate deficiency There is currently no evidence to support the use of phosphate therapy for DKA (34-36), and there is no evidence that hypophosphatemia causes rhabdomyolysis in DKA (37). However, because hypophosphatemia has been associated with rhabdomyolysis in other states, administration of potassium phosphate in cases of severe hypophosphatemia could be considered for the purpose of trying to prevent rhabdomyolysis. COMPLICATIONS In Ontario, in-hospital mortality in patients hospitalized for acute hyperglycemia ranged from
ketoacidosis in older versus younger adults. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1992;40:1100-1104. 5. Kitabchi AE, Umpierrez GE, Murphy MB, et al. Management of hyperglycemic crises in patients with diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2001;24:131-153. 6. Chiasson JL, Aris-Jilwan N, Belanger R, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis and the hyperglycemic hyperosmolar state. CMAJ. 2003;168:859-866. 7. Lebovitz HE, Diabetic ketoacidosis. Lancet. 1995;345:767-772. 8. Munro JF, Campbell IW, McCuish AC, et al. Euglycemic diabetic ketoacidosis. BMJ. 1973;2:578-580. 9. May ME,Young C, King J. Resource utilization in treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis in adults. Am J Med Sci. 1993;306:287-294. 10. Levetan CS, Jablonski KA, Passaro MD, et al. Effect of physician specialty on outcomes in diabetic ketoacidosis. Diabetes Care. 1999;22:1790-1795. 11. Kreisberg RA. Diabetic ketoacidosis: new concepts and trends in pathogenesis and treatment. Ann Intern Med. 1978;88:681- 695. 12. Ennis ED, Stahl EJ, Kreisberg RA. The hyperosmolar hyperglycemic syndrome. Diabetes Rev. 1994;2:115-126. 13. Mahoney CP, Vlcek BW, DelAguila M. Risk factors for developing brain herniation during diabetic ketoacidosis. Pediatr Neurol. 1999;2:721-727. 14. Rosenbloom AL. Intracerebral crises during treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis. Diabetes Care. 1990;13:22-33. 15. Adrogue HJ, Barrero J, Eknoyan G. Salutary effects of modest fluid replacement in the treatment of adults with diabetic ketoacidosis. JAMA. 1989;262:2108-2113. 16. Fein IA, Rackow EC, Sprung CL, et al. Relation of colloid osmotic pressure to arterial hypoxemia and cerebral edema during crystalloid volume loading of patients with diabetic ketoacidosis. Ann Intern Med. 1982;96:570-575. 17. Owen OE, Licht JH, Sapir DG. Renal function and effects of partial rehydration during diabetic ketoacidosis. Diabetes. 1981; 30:510-518. 18. Kitabchi AE, Ayyagari V, Guerra SM, et al.The efficacy of low dose versus conventional therapy of insulin for treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis. Ann Intern Med. 1976;84:633-638. 19. Heber D, Molitch ME, Sperling MA. Low-dose continuous insulin therapy for diabetic ketoacidosis. Prospective comparison with “conventional” insulin therapy. Arch Intern Med. 1977;137:1377-1380. 20. Butkiewicz EK, Leibson CL, O’Brien PC, et al. Insulin therapy for diabetic ketoacidosis. Bolus insulin injection versus continuous insulin infusion. Diabetes Care. 1995;18:1187-1190. 21. Fort P,Waters SM, Lifshitz F. Low-dose insulin infusion in the treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis: bolus versus no bolus. J Pediatr. 1980;96:36-40. 22. Lindsay R, Bolte RG. The use of an insulin bolus in low-dose insulin infusion for pediatric diabetic ketoacidosis. Pediatr Emerg Care. 1989;5:77-79. 23. Della Manna T, Steinmetz L, Campos PR, et al. Subcutaneous use of a fast-acting insulin analog: an alternative treatment for pediatric patients with diabetic ketoacidosis. Diabetes Care.2005; 28:1856-1861. 24. Umpierrez GE, Latif K, Stoever J, et al. Efficacy of subcutaneous insulin lispro versus continuous intravenous regular insulin for the treatment of patients with diabetic ketoacidosis. Am J Med. 2004;117:291-296. 25. Umpierrez GE, Cuervo R, Karabell A, et al.Treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis with subcutaneous insulin aspart. Diabetes Care. 2004;27:1873-1888. 26. Wiggam MI, O’Kane MJ, Harper R, et al.Treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis using normalization of blood 3-hydroxybutyrate concentration as the endpoint of emergency management. Diabetes Care. 1997;20:1347-1352. 27. Waldhäusl W, Kleinberger G, Korn A, et al. Severe hyperglycemia: effects of rehydration on endocrine derangements and blood glucose concentration. Diabetes. 1979;28:577-584. 28. Gerich JE, Martin MM, Recant LL. Clinical and metabolic characteristics of hyperosmolar nonketotic coma. Diabetes. 1971; 20:228-238. 29. Morris LR, Murphy MB, Kitabchi AE. Bicarbonate therapy in severe diabetic ketoacidosis. Ann Intern Med. 1986;105:836-840. 30. Gamba G, Oseguera J, Castrejon M, et al. Bicarbonate therapy in severe diabetic ketoacidosis: a double blind, randomized placebo controlled trial. Revista Investig Clinica. 1991;43:234- 248. 31. Hale PJ, Crase J, Nattrass M. Metabolic effects of bicarbonate in the treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis. Br Med J Clin Res Ed. 1984;289:1035-1038. 32. Soler NG, Bennet MA, Dixon K, et al. Potassium balance during treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis with special reference to the use of bicarbonate. Lancet. 1972;2:665-667. 33. Carlotti AP, Bohn D, Mallie JP, et al.Tonicity balance, and not electrolyte-free water calculations, more accurately guides therapy for acute changes in natremia. Intensive Care Med.2001; 27:921-924. 34. Keller U, Berger W. Prevention of hypophosphatemia by phosphate infusion during treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis and hyperosmolar coma. Diabetes. 1980;29:87-95. 35. Wilson HK, Keuer SP, Lea AS, et al. Phosphate therapy in diabetic ketoacidosis. Arch Intern Med. 1982;142:517-520. 36. Fisher JN, Kitabchi AE.A randomized study of phosphate therapy in the treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1983:57:177-180. 37. Singhal PC, Abromovici M, Ayer S, et al. Determinants of rhabdomyolysis in the diabetic state. Am J Nephrol. 1991;11: 447-450. 38. Booth GL, Fang J.Acute complications of diabetes. In: Hux JE, Booth GL, Slaughter PM, et al, eds. Diabetes in Ontario:An ICES Practice Atlas. Toronto, ON: Institute for Clinical Evaluative Sciences; 2003:2.19-2.50. Available at http://www.ices.on. ca. Accessed September 1, 2008. 39. Bagg W, Sathu A, Streat S, et al. Diabetic ketoacidosis in adults at Auckland Hospital, 1988-1996. Aust N Z J Med. 1998;28: 604-608. S69 MANAGEMENT
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