the role of tourism in natural resource management in the okavango ...

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» ¥GC ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My gratitude and appreciation are extended to the following: i. Professor Brij Maharaj for his support, patience and guidance. I am indebted to Professor Maharaj for providing me with direction in my academic path. ii. Doctor Trevor Hill and the Danish Government through DANIDA for providing me with the opportunity and funding to carry out this study. iii. Interviewees and other officials, particularly from the University of Botswana, Conservation International, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks, the Department of Agriculture, the National Herbarium and the Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre in Maun. iv. The managers of the various hotels, lodges and safari camps situated throughout the Okavango Delta, and the tourists and local inhabitants that participated in my surveys. v. My family and friends for their ongoing support, understanding and encouragement. vi. The staff and students of the Geography Department for their support and . friendship over the years.
;;;4 ABSTRACT In recent years the use of tourism as a development strategy by Third World governments has increased, resulting in the intersection of international tourism and local resource utilisation patterns. The aim of this thesis is to critically assess the impact of tourism in the utilisation and management of natural resources in the Okavango Delta in Botswana. More specifically, the study appraises the current state of tourism and natural resource utilisation and management in the Okavango Delta; assesses the past and present forms of resource utilisation practised by the local inhabitants scattered throughout the Delta area; focuses on the implementation of government policy regarding resource use; highlights past and present relationships between tourism and resource utilisation; and examines the impact of tourism on the areas resources, environment and local inhabitants. Research has shown that the Okavango Delta, which is Botswana's primary tourism area, is faced with a number of social, economic and environmental challenges. These include extreme levels of poverty, especially in the rural areas; lack of infrastructure; competition over land and resources; growing regional inequality; social degradation; increased imports leading to foreign exchange leakages; changes in subsistence strategies and increased 'rural-urban' .migration; and the loss of control of the region by the local population to the global tourism system. The Okavango Delta is in the process of undergoing a change from traditional, rural, subsistence economies and livelihoods to capitalist, commercial-driven economic structures. In the Okavango Delta, as in many places around the world, people are in the process of being integrated into national level political, social and economic institutions, both within and outside of their control. The creation of employment for the local population, the sustainable use of the Delta and its resources, the development of the local agricultural industry, the continued growth of the tourism industry, and striking a balance between the conservation/preservation of the Okavango and meeting the water requirement needs of Angola, Namibia, and Botswana's growing populations are amongst the key concerns present in the area. 11
Page 1: ;q::a THE ROLE OF TOURISM IN NATURA
Page 5 and 6: TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE: INTR
Page 7 and 8: 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.8.1 4.8.2 4.8
Page 9 and 10: 5.4.1.6 Batawana and Natural Resour
Page 11 and 12: CHAPTER SEVEN: NATURAL RESOURCE UTI
Page 13 and 14: 8.2.1 Migration in the Okavango Del
Page 15 and 16: REFERENCES APPENDICES XIV 417 459
Page 17 and 18: Table 6.15: Room and Bed Occupancy
Page 19 and 20: LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1: Study o
Page 21 and 22: ACP ADP AE10 AIDS ALDEP ARAP BAMB B
Page 23: SPSS STMT TGLP UB UNDP UNEP UNRISD
Page 26 and 27: Empirical evidence, however, does n
Page 28 and 29: norms of its people. To date, the g
Page 30 and 31: numbers (Appendix One). Investigati
Page 32 and 33: 4. Establish the extent of natural
Page 34 and 35: detailed in chapter five. The insti
Page 36 and 37: destinations, concentrating on its
Page 38 and 39: serious academic consideration. The
Page 40 and 41: Figure 2.1: Study of Tourism and Ch
Page 42 and 43: management strategies are implement
Page 44 and 45: Tourism should thus be regarded as
Page 46 and 47: exchange, investment, income and em
Page 48 and 49: problem. He states that it is time
Page 50 and 51: The first assumption is largely bas
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However, as Western (1993) points o
Page 54:
Fourth, tourism may bring about dev
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tourism, the type of skills that ar
Page 59 and 60:
Despite the various economic benefi
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Some cultural modifications due to
Page 63 and 64:
2.8.5 Environmental Benefits of Tou
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However, as Gunn (1994) points out,
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or displacing another group of user
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protection of the environment was t
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These range from the numerous impac
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difficult to foresee and which refl
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carried unintentionally on the shoe
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Pyrenees (Smith and Jenner, 1989).
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waste is being developed or upgrade
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water, however, inhibits the natura
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arrivals and Riccione hoteliers alo
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1981). Butler (1991) recognises tha
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economic growth in developed countr
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infinite or infinitely renewable 'f
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also be described as a 'deep ecolog
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Having highlighted the general conc
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• • • • • • Follow ethi
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The English Tourist Board (1991, ci
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as ideas and technologies on the pa
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eap net benefits, tourism can be cl
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2.14 Summary and Conclusion This ch
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conceptualised as a global process
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alienated from the means of product
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extent that the quality of life wit
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The successful creation or inventio
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modern production, it has moved awa
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As previously discussed, the proces
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The origination of world-standardis
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attraction to less developed econom
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Hence, the government must take act
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develop with other sectors of the e
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Methodology 4.1 Introduction CHAPTE
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hypothesised, further, that tourism
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Qualitative research within the fie
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4.7 Sample In order to test the hyp
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4.8.2 Structured Questionnaire Meth
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4.9 Methods of Data Collation, Synt
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development and changes in traditio
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Review of selected international an
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diminishing returns of extractive i
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Figure 5.1: Map of Botswana Source:
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ate and economic progress seldom pa
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percent growth targeted in Vision 2
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informal sector work, especially in
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Table 5.1: Land UselTenure in Botsw
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Table 5.2: Land UselTenure Change i
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5.2.7 Pressure on the Land In most
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international controversy over its
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hectare minimum necessary for house
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the backbone of the rural economy.
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Botswana affords many possibilities
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Panhandle, the Okavango River then
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to the south, east and west (Ross,
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Fish populations in the entire Okav
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themselves in the main stream of th
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Presently in the Ngamiland district
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vendor, retailing, the production o
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third furrow planting and mechanica
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farmer who supplies crops to the vi
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I Unlike consumptive resource utili
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southern edge of the Delta, the Bot
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Bugakwe and Xanekwe people traditio
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The leader in each San band or grou
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Descendants of San groups that live
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5.4.1.6 Batawana and Natural Resour
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payment of tribute as a way of ensu
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more rifles, European-made clothing
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wildlife products. Fish, reptiles,
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However, Rey was anxious to establi
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Figure 5.8: Structure of Natural Re
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other hand, veterinary officers wer
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• • • • As with other natur
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• Problems with solid waste dispo
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natural resources and to increase t
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ineffective in ensuring that all to
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development which emphasise the par
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The National Conservation Strategy
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The growth of tourism in the Okavan
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fifteen year period. The community-
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• The 5-year review policy left m
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government also provides 85 percent
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Prefodiafoka fence constructed in 1
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for several consecutive years, the
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and water, but fortunately the Bots
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It is in the context of the above t
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income, and presumably high spendin
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Although several researchers noted
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In order for local Botswana citizen
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Figure 6.1: Percentage of Total Arr
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Table 6.2: Total Arrivals in Botswa
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earth's wilderness areas shrink rap
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eference to the Okavango Delta regi
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With regards to tourist/visitor num
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European and North American origin,
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most direct economic impacts of tou
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Table 6.9: Number of Accommodation
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tend to vary in terms of standards
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Safari hunters or spot (commercial)
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validated by the Tawana Land Board
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companies, 6 (40 percent) to jointl
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Lastly, wildlife tends to congregat
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Table 6.17: Major Safari Companies/
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indicates that Botswana has more ar
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6.4 The Economic Impact of Tourism
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weakest with agriculture, construct
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As noted earlier, the greater major
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Table 6.25: Estimated Tourism-Relat
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evenue collection from the various
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Despite these conflicting employmen
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According to the study carried out
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management positions in the tourism
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Seventy four percent of the 50 loca
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Table 6.33: List of Private Air Cha
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CHAPTER SEVEN Natural Resource Util
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natural resources of water and pris
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According to personal interviews co
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• • • • • • • • Dea
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Experience shows that some animals,
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inhabitants of the Okavango Delta r
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control is vested with central gove
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conservation area. This led to conf
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Table 7.4: Main Stakeholders, Land
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7.2.3.1 Arable Farming and Wildlife
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Table 7.6: Livestock Ownership in K
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Furthermore, the NCS has failed to
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Botswana because populations of bot
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Delta, while previously inhabitants
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facilities that do not have boats,
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• • • • • 7.2.6 Since the
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different products, wood is perhaps
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Today, Hyphaene petersiana palms as
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populations in the rivers have drop
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The importance of people remaining
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CBNRM aims at alleviating poverty a
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the wildlife populations and their
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no longer an important livelihood s
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• • • • • • 7.3.4 Clari
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Leases are given for 15 year period
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Table 7.10: Community-Based Organis
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7.3.6.3 The Okavango Paler's Trust
Page 357 and 358:
at the same time allowing them to d
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eports on financial management and
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Table 7.11: Brief Review on Progres
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their land, etc., such as cash, mea
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7.4 Summary and Conclusion While th
Page 367 and 368:
8.2 Impacts of Tourism on Local Cul
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tourists in an area provide a sourc
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are left to perform all the traditi
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8.3.1 Positive Environmental Impact
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the country. As a result, it is ass
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most of these impacts remain unchec
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According to Lovemore Sola of Conse
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8.3.2.2 Creation of Illegal Roads i
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permeability. Pollutants can theref
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iverine systems. According to Tache
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implement laws and regulations cont
Page 389 and 390:
and resulted in the publication of
Page 391 and 392:
lowest, and substantial proportions
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Angola considered the construction
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ministries most closely involved in
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most to lose if the Okavango in its
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• Development of monitoring syste
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Suggested Solutions • Sustainable
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CHAPTER NINE Evaluation, Recommenda
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circumstances, the impacts of touri
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For example, the government has gon
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As such, it is only recently that t
Page 412 and 413:
According to Torres (1996), a wide
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of 1986 and the Tourism Policy of 1
Page 416 and 417:
Even though Botswana has developed
Page 418 and 419:
iodiversity conservation and rural
Page 420 and 421:
overriding challenge facing authori
Page 422 and 423:
As such, this study has revealed th
Page 424 and 425:
The development of tourism in the O
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9.10.1 Prospects for Integrated Res
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the Botswana government committed i
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Thirdly, almost the only interest e
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The following recommendations are p
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Activities common at this time incl
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knowledge to bring about sustainabl
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the entire Okavango River Basin, by
Page 440 and 441:
9.14 Summary and Conclusion This st
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Department of Tourism (DOT). 2000.
Page 444 and 445:
Okavango People's Wildlife Trust (O
Page 446 and 447:
Van Buren, L. 2002. Regional Survey
Page 448 and 449:
Briassoulis, H. 1991. Tourism and t
Page 450 and 451:
Hermans, Q. 1990. Opportunities and
Page 452 and 453:
Mbaiwa, J. E. 1999. Prospects for S
Page 454 and 455:
Rothert, S. 2000. The Water Page: D
Page 456 and 457:
Tsiang, T. 1990. An Overview of Tou
Page 458 and 459:
Cohen, E. 1978. Impact of Tourism o
Page 460 and 461:
Kocasoy, G. 1989. The relationship
Page 462 and 463:
Smith, C. and Jenner, P. 1989. Tour
Page 464 and 465:
Niles, E. 1991. Sustainable tourism
Page 466 and 467:
Bennet, J. A. 1995. Managing Touris
Page 468 and 469:
Cooper, C. 1997. Parameters and Ind
Page 470 and 471:
Filion, F., Foley, J. and Jacquemot
Page 472 and 473:
Harrison, D. 1994. Tourism, Capital
Page 474 and 475:
Leontidou, L. 1990. The Mediterrane
Page 476 and 477:
Morris, A. 1998. Geography and Deve
Page 478 and 479:
Rojek, C. and Urry, J. 1997. Tourin
Page 481 and 482:
Western, D. 1993. Foreword: definin
Page 483 and 484:
APPENDIX ONE TOURISM, NATURAL RESOU
Page 485 and 486:
Prospects for Mbaiwa, J. 1999 Resou
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State Interests and Swatuk, L. A. 2
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10. Is the condition of the environ
Page 491 and 492:
APPENDIX THREE LIST OF HOTELS, LODG
Page 493 and 494:
10. Does this hotel/lodge/safari ca
Page 495:
16. Do you think that the developme
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