the role of tourism in natural resource management in the okavango ...

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other hand, veterinary officers were constantly complaining about wildlife which carried foot-and-mouth disease, anthrax, nasal catarrh, lumpy-skin disease, rabies, lung sickness, rinderpest, nagana and a host of other ailments, all of which could, and were, being transmitted to domestic livestock. Official reports resounded with their complaints, and individual vets opposed the establishment of the Nosop River Game Reserve, Chobe Game Reserve, Moremi Wildlife Reserve and Nxai Pan National Park, as well as advocating the elimination of wildlife in cattle areas. Without veterinary objections, a Department of Wildlife Conservation may have been established years earlier in Botswana (Campbell, 1997). Increased complaints by farmers in central and northern Botswana that growing elephant populations were destroying crops convinced the Protectorate Administration that official control of "...these marauding brutes" was necessary (Campbell, 1997, p.22). In 1956 the Game Control Unit was established by the Protectorate Administration, and a game officer, Major Bromfield, was appointed and stationed in Francistown, with the task of controlling elephant crop raiders. However, he had wider interests than just the control of elephants, and managed to gather a small staff and persuaded the Protectorate Administration to establish a legitimate wildlife department in Botswana, undertake a total review of the wildlife laws, hold a conference on wildlife conservation for the future, change the licensing system and initiate safari concession areas and safari hunting. He was naturally disliked by many veterinary officers (Campbell, 1997). Prior to 1956, there was no control over the utilisation of wildlife beyond the licensing of non-citizen hunters. In 1964, the Game Control Unit changed its name to the Department of Wildlife, National Parks and Tourism, as the activities of the department grew to include limited commercial tourism ventures. In 1966 Major Bromfield retired and the Wildlife Department headquarters were moved to the Ministry of Commerce in Gaborone. A qualified veterinarian was appointed Chief Game Warden, more staff were hired, and the Department of Wildlife and National Parks began to take shape. Arguments with the Veterinary Department continued, but now at a lower level. However, the new Department had little status and an impossibly huge task: to create in a few years, in a country devoted to cattle raising, a conservation organisation born a century too late (Campbell, 1997). 188
The development of the Department of Wildlife and National Parks led to the establishment of the National Parks Act of 1968. The Department of Wildlife and National Parks drew its mandate and authority from the Fauna Conservation Act of 1967 and the National Parks Act of 1968. However, it was only in 1992 that these laws were consolidated into the Wildlife Conservation and National Parks Act of 1992. This Act provides regulations for hunting, national parks and game reserves (Campbell, 1997). In 1985, the Republic of Botswana Organisation and Review Report recommended the establishment of separate departments of Wildlife and National Parks and that of tourism management (the Department of Tourism) (Mbaiwa, 2002). 5.4.2.4 The Department of Wildlife and National Parks (DWNP) The Department of Wildlife and National Parks (DWNP) is one of the most important, and sadly one of the most ineffective, government departments responsible for the sustainable development and management of natural resources and wildlife in Botswana. Some 23 percent of Botswana's land is state owned, of which 17 percent is devoted to wildlife and national parks and game reserves, which are under the jurisdiction of the Department of Wildlife and National Parks. Hence, the DWNP is responsible for 17 percent of Botswana's land area, which includes all state-owned national parks and game reserves, including the Moremi Game Reserve in the Okavango Delta. These parks and reserves contain most of the prime wildlife areas and populations left in Botswana, upon which much of the country's tourism industry is based (Mbaiwa, 1999; Mbaiwa, 2002). The general objective of the Department of Wildlife and National Parks is to manage natural resources found in protected areas, particularly wildlife (Mbaiwa, 2002). It sets as its main aim, the conservation, management, promotion and productive use of the national wildlife resources and the country's protected areas such as game reserves, national parks and wildlife management areas. Even though the Department of Wildlife and National Parks has sound aims and objectives, it has been unable to effectively carry out its mandate due to numerous limitations. These include: 189
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;q::a THE ROLE OF TOURISM IN NATURA
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;;;4 ABSTRACT In recent years the u
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TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE: INTR
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4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.8.1 4.8.2 4.8
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5.4.1.6 Batawana and Natural Resour
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CHAPTER SEVEN: NATURAL RESOURCE UTI
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8.2.1 Migration in the Okavango Del
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REFERENCES APPENDICES XIV 417 459
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Table 6.15: Room and Bed Occupancy
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LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1: Study o
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ACP ADP AE10 AIDS ALDEP ARAP BAMB B
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SPSS STMT TGLP UB UNDP UNEP UNRISD
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Empirical evidence, however, does n
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norms of its people. To date, the g
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numbers (Appendix One). Investigati
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4. Establish the extent of natural
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detailed in chapter five. The insti
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destinations, concentrating on its
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serious academic consideration. The
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Figure 2.1: Study of Tourism and Ch
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management strategies are implement
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Tourism should thus be regarded as
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exchange, investment, income and em
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problem. He states that it is time
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The first assumption is largely bas
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However, as Western (1993) points o
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Fourth, tourism may bring about dev
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tourism, the type of skills that ar
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Despite the various economic benefi
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Some cultural modifications due to
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2.8.5 Environmental Benefits of Tou
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However, as Gunn (1994) points out,
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or displacing another group of user
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protection of the environment was t
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These range from the numerous impac
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difficult to foresee and which refl
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carried unintentionally on the shoe
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Pyrenees (Smith and Jenner, 1989).
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waste is being developed or upgrade
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water, however, inhibits the natura
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arrivals and Riccione hoteliers alo
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1981). Butler (1991) recognises tha
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economic growth in developed countr
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infinite or infinitely renewable 'f
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also be described as a 'deep ecolog
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Having highlighted the general conc
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• • • • • • Follow ethi
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The English Tourist Board (1991, ci
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as ideas and technologies on the pa
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eap net benefits, tourism can be cl
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2.14 Summary and Conclusion This ch
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conceptualised as a global process
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alienated from the means of product
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extent that the quality of life wit
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The successful creation or inventio
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modern production, it has moved awa
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As previously discussed, the proces
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The origination of world-standardis
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attraction to less developed econom
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Hence, the government must take act
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develop with other sectors of the e
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Methodology 4.1 Introduction CHAPTE
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hypothesised, further, that tourism
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Qualitative research within the fie
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4.7 Sample In order to test the hyp
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4.8.2 Structured Questionnaire Meth
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4.9 Methods of Data Collation, Synt
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development and changes in traditio
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Review of selected international an
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diminishing returns of extractive i
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Figure 5.1: Map of Botswana Source:
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ate and economic progress seldom pa
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percent growth targeted in Vision 2
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informal sector work, especially in
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Table 5.1: Land UselTenure in Botsw
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Table 5.2: Land UselTenure Change i
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5.2.7 Pressure on the Land In most
Page 161 and 162: international controversy over its
Page 163 and 164: hectare minimum necessary for house
Page 165 and 166: the backbone of the rural economy.
Page 168 and 169: Botswana affords many possibilities
Page 171: Panhandle, the Okavango River then
Page 174 and 175: to the south, east and west (Ross,
Page 176 and 177: Fish populations in the entire Okav
Page 179 and 180: themselves in the main stream of th
Page 181 and 182: Presently in the Ngamiland district
Page 183 and 184: vendor, retailing, the production o
Page 185 and 186: third furrow planting and mechanica
Page 187 and 188: farmer who supplies crops to the vi
Page 189 and 190: I Unlike consumptive resource utili
Page 191 and 192: southern edge of the Delta, the Bot
Page 194 and 195: Bugakwe and Xanekwe people traditio
Page 196 and 197: The leader in each San band or grou
Page 198 and 199: Descendants of San groups that live
Page 200 and 201: 5.4.1.6 Batawana and Natural Resour
Page 202 and 203: payment of tribute as a way of ensu
Page 204 and 205: more rifles, European-made clothing
Page 206 and 207: wildlife products. Fish, reptiles,
Page 208 and 209: However, Rey was anxious to establi
Page 210 and 211: Figure 5.8: Structure of Natural Re
Page 214 and 215: • • • • As with other natur
Page 216 and 217: • Problems with solid waste dispo
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Page 220 and 221: ineffective in ensuring that all to
Page 222 and 223: development which emphasise the par
Page 224 and 225: The National Conservation Strategy
Page 226 and 227: The growth of tourism in the Okavan
Page 228 and 229: fifteen year period. The community-
Page 230 and 231: • The 5-year review policy left m
Page 232 and 233: government also provides 85 percent
Page 235 and 236: Prefodiafoka fence constructed in 1
Page 237 and 238: for several consecutive years, the
Page 239 and 240: and water, but fortunately the Bots
Page 241 and 242: It is in the context of the above t
Page 243 and 244: income, and presumably high spendin
Page 245 and 246: Although several researchers noted
Page 247 and 248: In order for local Botswana citizen
Page 249: Figure 6.1: Percentage of Total Arr
Page 252 and 253: Table 6.2: Total Arrivals in Botswa
Page 254 and 255: earth's wilderness areas shrink rap
Page 256 and 257: eference to the Okavango Delta regi
Page 258 and 259: With regards to tourist/visitor num
Page 260 and 261: European and North American origin,
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most direct economic impacts of tou
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Table 6.9: Number of Accommodation
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tend to vary in terms of standards
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Safari hunters or spot (commercial)
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validated by the Tawana Land Board
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companies, 6 (40 percent) to jointl
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Lastly, wildlife tends to congregat
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Table 6.17: Major Safari Companies/
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indicates that Botswana has more ar
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6.4 The Economic Impact of Tourism
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weakest with agriculture, construct
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As noted earlier, the greater major
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Table 6.25: Estimated Tourism-Relat
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evenue collection from the various
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Despite these conflicting employmen
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According to the study carried out
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management positions in the tourism
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Seventy four percent of the 50 loca
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Table 6.33: List of Private Air Cha
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CHAPTER SEVEN Natural Resource Util
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natural resources of water and pris
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According to personal interviews co
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• • • • • • • • Dea
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Experience shows that some animals,
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inhabitants of the Okavango Delta r
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control is vested with central gove
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conservation area. This led to conf
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Table 7.4: Main Stakeholders, Land
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7.2.3.1 Arable Farming and Wildlife
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Table 7.6: Livestock Ownership in K
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Furthermore, the NCS has failed to
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Botswana because populations of bot
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Delta, while previously inhabitants
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facilities that do not have boats,
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• • • • • 7.2.6 Since the
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different products, wood is perhaps
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Today, Hyphaene petersiana palms as
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populations in the rivers have drop
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The importance of people remaining
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CBNRM aims at alleviating poverty a
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the wildlife populations and their
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no longer an important livelihood s
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• • • • • • 7.3.4 Clari
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Leases are given for 15 year period
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Table 7.10: Community-Based Organis
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7.3.6.3 The Okavango Paler's Trust
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at the same time allowing them to d
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eports on financial management and
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Table 7.11: Brief Review on Progres
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their land, etc., such as cash, mea
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7.4 Summary and Conclusion While th
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8.2 Impacts of Tourism on Local Cul
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tourists in an area provide a sourc
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are left to perform all the traditi
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8.3.1 Positive Environmental Impact
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the country. As a result, it is ass
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most of these impacts remain unchec
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According to Lovemore Sola of Conse
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8.3.2.2 Creation of Illegal Roads i
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permeability. Pollutants can theref
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iverine systems. According to Tache
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implement laws and regulations cont
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and resulted in the publication of
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lowest, and substantial proportions
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Angola considered the construction
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ministries most closely involved in
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most to lose if the Okavango in its
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• Development of monitoring syste
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Suggested Solutions • Sustainable
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CHAPTER NINE Evaluation, Recommenda
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circumstances, the impacts of touri
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For example, the government has gon
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As such, it is only recently that t
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According to Torres (1996), a wide
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of 1986 and the Tourism Policy of 1
Page 416 and 417:
Even though Botswana has developed
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iodiversity conservation and rural
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overriding challenge facing authori
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As such, this study has revealed th
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The development of tourism in the O
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9.10.1 Prospects for Integrated Res
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the Botswana government committed i
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Thirdly, almost the only interest e
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The following recommendations are p
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Activities common at this time incl
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knowledge to bring about sustainabl
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the entire Okavango River Basin, by
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9.14 Summary and Conclusion This st
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Department of Tourism (DOT). 2000.
Page 444 and 445:
Okavango People's Wildlife Trust (O
Page 446 and 447:
Van Buren, L. 2002. Regional Survey
Page 448 and 449:
Briassoulis, H. 1991. Tourism and t
Page 450 and 451:
Hermans, Q. 1990. Opportunities and
Page 452 and 453:
Mbaiwa, J. E. 1999. Prospects for S
Page 454 and 455:
Rothert, S. 2000. The Water Page: D
Page 456 and 457:
Tsiang, T. 1990. An Overview of Tou
Page 458 and 459:
Cohen, E. 1978. Impact of Tourism o
Page 460 and 461:
Kocasoy, G. 1989. The relationship
Page 462 and 463:
Smith, C. and Jenner, P. 1989. Tour
Page 464 and 465:
Niles, E. 1991. Sustainable tourism
Page 466 and 467:
Bennet, J. A. 1995. Managing Touris
Page 468 and 469:
Cooper, C. 1997. Parameters and Ind
Page 470 and 471:
Filion, F., Foley, J. and Jacquemot
Page 472 and 473:
Harrison, D. 1994. Tourism, Capital
Page 474 and 475:
Leontidou, L. 1990. The Mediterrane
Page 476 and 477:
Morris, A. 1998. Geography and Deve
Page 478 and 479:
Rojek, C. and Urry, J. 1997. Tourin
Page 481 and 482:
Western, D. 1993. Foreword: definin
Page 483 and 484:
APPENDIX ONE TOURISM, NATURAL RESOU
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Prospects for Mbaiwa, J. 1999 Resou
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State Interests and Swatuk, L. A. 2
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10. Is the condition of the environ
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APPENDIX THREE LIST OF HOTELS, LODG
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10. Does this hotel/lodge/safari ca
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16. Do you think that the developme
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