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detailed in chapter five. The institutional and policy framework in tourism and natural resource management in the Okavango Delta region is also presented in this chapter. Chapters six, seven and eight present the study results, with chapter six providing an in-depth view of the Okavango Delta's tourism industry, chapter seven focusing on the utilisation and management of natural resources in the Okavango Delta, and chapter eight presenting the socio-cultural and environmental impacts of tourism in the Okavango Delta region, and the present and future threats facing the Okavango system. A discussion of the results in chapter nine demonstrates how this study contributes, in a meaningful way, to the existing body of literature on the impacts of tourism and natural resource management. Recommendations concerning sustainable natural resource utilisation and development are discussed and other relevant aspects that might enhance the relationship between tourism development and sustainable natural resource use are presented. 10
Literature Review 2.1 Introduction CHAPTER TWO In a world of change, one constant over the last quarter of the twentieth century has been the sustained growth of tourism both as an activity and an industry (Cooper et aI, 1998). Tourism has a history that extends back as far as some of the earliest forms of trade. However, it was not until the last half of the twentieth century that it has become prominent in terms of both the geographical extent of tourism flows and the scale of these movements (Faulkner et aI, 2001). In 1996 the World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) estimated that tourism was the world's largest industry, and it directly and indirectly generates and supports 204 million jobs. This is equivalent to more than ten percent of the world's workforce and is responsible for over ten percent of global gross domestic product (GDP). It is clear that tourism is a significant force in the economy of the world, an activity of global importance (Cooper et aI, 1998). The demand for tourism is predicted to reach unprecedented levels over the next twenty years, providing the tourism industry and all those involved in its production and consumption with major challenges. New problems requiring new solutions are constantly arising. The tourism industry is a complex and dynamic system where the primary elements change constantly and often unpredictably. Nevertheless, the economic significance of tourism has guaranteed increased governmental, private and international attention, and accompanying this has been a growing recognition of the importance of tourism and the need to be able to define and measure all aspects of the industry (Cooper et aI, 1998; Shaw and Williams, 2004). This chapter presents a broad overview of the various definitions, concepts, approaches to, and theories of, tourism and natural resource management. It focuses on tourism's social, economic and environmental effects on host 11
Page 1 and 2: ;q::a THE ROLE OF TOURISM IN NATURA
Page 3 and 4: ;;;4 ABSTRACT In recent years the u
Page 5 and 6: TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE: INTR
Page 7 and 8: 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.8.1 4.8.2 4.8
Page 9 and 10: 5.4.1.6 Batawana and Natural Resour
Page 11 and 12: CHAPTER SEVEN: NATURAL RESOURCE UTI
Page 13 and 14: 8.2.1 Migration in the Okavango Del
Page 15 and 16: REFERENCES APPENDICES XIV 417 459
Page 17 and 18: Table 6.15: Room and Bed Occupancy
Page 19 and 20: LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1: Study o
Page 21 and 22: ACP ADP AE10 AIDS ALDEP ARAP BAMB B
Page 23: SPSS STMT TGLP UB UNDP UNEP UNRISD
Page 26 and 27: Empirical evidence, however, does n
Page 28 and 29: norms of its people. To date, the g
Page 30 and 31: numbers (Appendix One). Investigati
Page 32 and 33: 4. Establish the extent of natural
Page 36 and 37: destinations, concentrating on its
Page 38 and 39: serious academic consideration. The
Page 40 and 41: Figure 2.1: Study of Tourism and Ch
Page 42 and 43: management strategies are implement
Page 44 and 45: Tourism should thus be regarded as
Page 46 and 47: exchange, investment, income and em
Page 48 and 49: problem. He states that it is time
Page 50 and 51: The first assumption is largely bas
Page 52 and 53: However, as Western (1993) points o
Page 54: Fourth, tourism may bring about dev
Page 57 and 58: tourism, the type of skills that ar
Page 59 and 60: Despite the various economic benefi
Page 61 and 62: Some cultural modifications due to
Page 63 and 64: 2.8.5 Environmental Benefits of Tou
Page 65 and 66: However, as Gunn (1994) points out,
Page 67 and 68: or displacing another group of user
Page 69 and 70: protection of the environment was t
Page 71 and 72: These range from the numerous impac
Page 73 and 74: difficult to foresee and which refl
Page 75 and 76: carried unintentionally on the shoe
Page 77 and 78: Pyrenees (Smith and Jenner, 1989).
Page 79 and 80: waste is being developed or upgrade
Page 81 and 82: water, however, inhibits the natura
Page 83 and 84: arrivals and Riccione hoteliers alo
Page 85 and 86:
1981). Butler (1991) recognises tha
Page 87 and 88:
economic growth in developed countr
Page 89 and 90:
infinite or infinitely renewable 'f
Page 91 and 92:
also be described as a 'deep ecolog
Page 93 and 94:
Having highlighted the general conc
Page 95 and 96:
• • • • • • Follow ethi
Page 97 and 98:
The English Tourist Board (1991, ci
Page 99 and 100:
as ideas and technologies on the pa
Page 101 and 102:
eap net benefits, tourism can be cl
Page 103 and 104:
2.14 Summary and Conclusion This ch
Page 105 and 106:
conceptualised as a global process
Page 107 and 108:
alienated from the means of product
Page 109 and 110:
extent that the quality of life wit
Page 111 and 112:
The successful creation or inventio
Page 113 and 114:
modern production, it has moved awa
Page 115 and 116:
As previously discussed, the proces
Page 117 and 118:
The origination of world-standardis
Page 119 and 120:
attraction to less developed econom
Page 121 and 122:
Hence, the government must take act
Page 123 and 124:
develop with other sectors of the e
Page 125 and 126:
Methodology 4.1 Introduction CHAPTE
Page 127 and 128:
hypothesised, further, that tourism
Page 129 and 130:
Qualitative research within the fie
Page 131 and 132:
4.7 Sample In order to test the hyp
Page 133 and 134:
4.8.2 Structured Questionnaire Meth
Page 136 and 137:
4.9 Methods of Data Collation, Synt
Page 138:
development and changes in traditio
Page 141:
Review of selected international an
Page 144 and 145:
diminishing returns of extractive i
Page 146 and 147:
Figure 5.1: Map of Botswana Source:
Page 148 and 149:
ate and economic progress seldom pa
Page 150 and 151:
percent growth targeted in Vision 2
Page 152 and 153:
informal sector work, especially in
Page 154 and 155:
Table 5.1: Land UselTenure in Botsw
Page 156 and 157:
Table 5.2: Land UselTenure Change i
Page 159 and 160:
5.2.7 Pressure on the Land In most
Page 161 and 162:
international controversy over its
Page 163 and 164:
hectare minimum necessary for house
Page 165 and 166:
the backbone of the rural economy.
Page 168 and 169:
Botswana affords many possibilities
Page 171:
Panhandle, the Okavango River then
Page 174 and 175:
to the south, east and west (Ross,
Page 176 and 177:
Fish populations in the entire Okav
Page 179 and 180:
themselves in the main stream of th
Page 181 and 182:
Presently in the Ngamiland district
Page 183 and 184:
vendor, retailing, the production o
Page 185 and 186:
third furrow planting and mechanica
Page 187 and 188:
farmer who supplies crops to the vi
Page 189 and 190:
I Unlike consumptive resource utili
Page 191 and 192:
southern edge of the Delta, the Bot
Page 194 and 195:
Bugakwe and Xanekwe people traditio
Page 196 and 197:
The leader in each San band or grou
Page 198 and 199:
Descendants of San groups that live
Page 200 and 201:
5.4.1.6 Batawana and Natural Resour
Page 202 and 203:
payment of tribute as a way of ensu
Page 204 and 205:
more rifles, European-made clothing
Page 206 and 207:
wildlife products. Fish, reptiles,
Page 208 and 209:
However, Rey was anxious to establi
Page 210 and 211:
Figure 5.8: Structure of Natural Re
Page 212 and 213:
other hand, veterinary officers wer
Page 214 and 215:
• • • • As with other natur
Page 216 and 217:
• Problems with solid waste dispo
Page 218 and 219:
natural resources and to increase t
Page 220 and 221:
ineffective in ensuring that all to
Page 222 and 223:
development which emphasise the par
Page 224 and 225:
The National Conservation Strategy
Page 226 and 227:
The growth of tourism in the Okavan
Page 228 and 229:
fifteen year period. The community-
Page 230 and 231:
• The 5-year review policy left m
Page 232 and 233:
government also provides 85 percent
Page 235 and 236:
Prefodiafoka fence constructed in 1
Page 237 and 238:
for several consecutive years, the
Page 239 and 240:
and water, but fortunately the Bots
Page 241 and 242:
It is in the context of the above t
Page 243 and 244:
income, and presumably high spendin
Page 245 and 246:
Although several researchers noted
Page 247 and 248:
In order for local Botswana citizen
Page 249:
Figure 6.1: Percentage of Total Arr
Page 252 and 253:
Table 6.2: Total Arrivals in Botswa
Page 254 and 255:
earth's wilderness areas shrink rap
Page 256 and 257:
eference to the Okavango Delta regi
Page 258 and 259:
With regards to tourist/visitor num
Page 260 and 261:
European and North American origin,
Page 262:
most direct economic impacts of tou
Page 265 and 266:
Table 6.9: Number of Accommodation
Page 267 and 268:
tend to vary in terms of standards
Page 269 and 270:
Safari hunters or spot (commercial)
Page 271 and 272:
validated by the Tawana Land Board
Page 273 and 274:
companies, 6 (40 percent) to jointl
Page 275 and 276:
Lastly, wildlife tends to congregat
Page 277 and 278:
Table 6.17: Major Safari Companies/
Page 279 and 280:
indicates that Botswana has more ar
Page 281 and 282:
6.4 The Economic Impact of Tourism
Page 283 and 284:
weakest with agriculture, construct
Page 285 and 286:
As noted earlier, the greater major
Page 287 and 288:
Table 6.25: Estimated Tourism-Relat
Page 289 and 290:
evenue collection from the various
Page 291 and 292:
Despite these conflicting employmen
Page 294 and 295:
According to the study carried out
Page 296 and 297:
management positions in the tourism
Page 298 and 299:
Seventy four percent of the 50 loca
Page 300 and 301:
Table 6.33: List of Private Air Cha
Page 302 and 303:
CHAPTER SEVEN Natural Resource Util
Page 304 and 305:
natural resources of water and pris
Page 306 and 307:
According to personal interviews co
Page 308 and 309:
• • • • • • • • Dea
Page 310 and 311:
Experience shows that some animals,
Page 312 and 313:
inhabitants of the Okavango Delta r
Page 314 and 315:
control is vested with central gove
Page 316 and 317:
conservation area. This led to conf
Page 318 and 319:
Table 7.4: Main Stakeholders, Land
Page 320 and 321:
7.2.3.1 Arable Farming and Wildlife
Page 322 and 323:
Table 7.6: Livestock Ownership in K
Page 324 and 325:
Furthermore, the NCS has failed to
Page 326 and 327:
Botswana because populations of bot
Page 328 and 329:
Delta, while previously inhabitants
Page 330 and 331:
facilities that do not have boats,
Page 332 and 333:
• • • • • 7.2.6 Since the
Page 334:
different products, wood is perhaps
Page 337 and 338:
Today, Hyphaene petersiana palms as
Page 339 and 340:
populations in the rivers have drop
Page 341 and 342:
The importance of people remaining
Page 343 and 344:
CBNRM aims at alleviating poverty a
Page 345 and 346:
the wildlife populations and their
Page 347 and 348:
no longer an important livelihood s
Page 349 and 350:
• • • • • • 7.3.4 Clari
Page 351 and 352:
Leases are given for 15 year period
Page 353 and 354:
Table 7.10: Community-Based Organis
Page 355 and 356:
7.3.6.3 The Okavango Paler's Trust
Page 357 and 358:
at the same time allowing them to d
Page 359 and 360:
eports on financial management and
Page 361 and 362:
Table 7.11: Brief Review on Progres
Page 363 and 364:
their land, etc., such as cash, mea
Page 365 and 366:
7.4 Summary and Conclusion While th
Page 367 and 368:
8.2 Impacts of Tourism on Local Cul
Page 369 and 370:
tourists in an area provide a sourc
Page 371 and 372:
are left to perform all the traditi
Page 373 and 374:
8.3.1 Positive Environmental Impact
Page 375 and 376:
the country. As a result, it is ass
Page 377 and 378:
most of these impacts remain unchec
Page 379 and 380:
According to Lovemore Sola of Conse
Page 381 and 382:
8.3.2.2 Creation of Illegal Roads i
Page 383 and 384:
permeability. Pollutants can theref
Page 385 and 386:
iverine systems. According to Tache
Page 387 and 388:
implement laws and regulations cont
Page 389 and 390:
and resulted in the publication of
Page 391 and 392:
lowest, and substantial proportions
Page 393:
Angola considered the construction
Page 396 and 397:
ministries most closely involved in
Page 398 and 399:
most to lose if the Okavango in its
Page 400 and 401:
• Development of monitoring syste
Page 402 and 403:
Suggested Solutions • Sustainable
Page 404 and 405:
CHAPTER NINE Evaluation, Recommenda
Page 406 and 407:
circumstances, the impacts of touri
Page 408 and 409:
For example, the government has gon
Page 410 and 411:
As such, it is only recently that t
Page 412 and 413:
According to Torres (1996), a wide
Page 414 and 415:
of 1986 and the Tourism Policy of 1
Page 416 and 417:
Even though Botswana has developed
Page 418 and 419:
iodiversity conservation and rural
Page 420 and 421:
overriding challenge facing authori
Page 422 and 423:
As such, this study has revealed th
Page 424 and 425:
The development of tourism in the O
Page 426 and 427:
9.10.1 Prospects for Integrated Res
Page 428 and 429:
the Botswana government committed i
Page 430 and 431:
Thirdly, almost the only interest e
Page 432 and 433:
The following recommendations are p
Page 434 and 435:
Activities common at this time incl
Page 436 and 437:
knowledge to bring about sustainabl
Page 438 and 439:
the entire Okavango River Basin, by
Page 440 and 441:
9.14 Summary and Conclusion This st
Page 442 and 443:
Department of Tourism (DOT). 2000.
Page 444 and 445:
Okavango People's Wildlife Trust (O
Page 446 and 447:
Van Buren, L. 2002. Regional Survey
Page 448 and 449:
Briassoulis, H. 1991. Tourism and t
Page 450 and 451:
Hermans, Q. 1990. Opportunities and
Page 452 and 453:
Mbaiwa, J. E. 1999. Prospects for S
Page 454 and 455:
Rothert, S. 2000. The Water Page: D
Page 456 and 457:
Tsiang, T. 1990. An Overview of Tou
Page 458 and 459:
Cohen, E. 1978. Impact of Tourism o
Page 460 and 461:
Kocasoy, G. 1989. The relationship
Page 462 and 463:
Smith, C. and Jenner, P. 1989. Tour
Page 464 and 465:
Niles, E. 1991. Sustainable tourism
Page 466 and 467:
Bennet, J. A. 1995. Managing Touris
Page 468 and 469:
Cooper, C. 1997. Parameters and Ind
Page 470 and 471:
Filion, F., Foley, J. and Jacquemot
Page 472 and 473:
Harrison, D. 1994. Tourism, Capital
Page 474 and 475:
Leontidou, L. 1990. The Mediterrane
Page 476 and 477:
Morris, A. 1998. Geography and Deve
Page 478 and 479:
Rojek, C. and Urry, J. 1997. Tourin
Page 481 and 482:
Western, D. 1993. Foreword: definin
Page 483 and 484:
APPENDIX ONE TOURISM, NATURAL RESOU
Page 485 and 486:
Prospects for Mbaiwa, J. 1999 Resou
Page 487 and 488:
State Interests and Swatuk, L. A. 2
Page 489 and 490:
10. Is the condition of the environ
Page 491 and 492:
APPENDIX THREE LIST OF HOTELS, LODG
Page 493 and 494:
10. Does this hotel/lodge/safari ca
Page 495:
16. Do you think that the developme
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