the role of tourism in natural resource management in the okavango ...

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Furthermore, sustainable tourism development recognises the linkages which exist between destination areas and the wider environment. Therefore it seeks to contribute to regional, national and global resource conservation and preservation measures in order to advance intra- and inter-generational equity of access to wealth-generating natural resources (Hunter and Green, 1995). Aspects of this interpretation of sustainable tourism development are apparent in the tourism literature. One of the most thorough investigations of the meaning of sustainable tourism development is provided by Cronin (1990, p. 13), who presents the cumulative work of a number of Canadian academics, business people and government officials: 'In the case of the tourism industry, sustainable development has a fairly specific meaning - the industry's challenge is to develop tourism capacity and the quality of its products without adversely affecting the physical and human environment that sustains and nurtures them'. Sustainable tourism development is reliant upon three conditions. Firstly, the resources of the environment must be protected; secondly, local communities must benefit both economically and in terms of quality of life; and thirdly, visitors must receive a quality experience. The concept of sustainable tourism is a very broad idea that refers to tourism that is long-lasting, integrated at the same time as diversified, participatory, and environmentally, economically, socially, and culturally compatible (Perez-Salom, 2001). Therefore, sustainable tourism development means planning attractions in such a way that allows tourists to enjoy them while also having minimal impacts on the host environment and culture. Sustainable development can only occur when the quality of the environment and community life can be preserved indefinitely. To achieve this goal, the local community must be included in all stages of development (Hassan, 2000). Cronin (1990, p. 13) further provides a list of criteria that need to be met for tourism developments to conform to the principles of sustainable development. These are that development should: 70
• • • • • • Follow ethical principles that respect the culture and environment of the destination area, the economy and traditional way of life, the indigenous behaviour, and the leadership and political patterns; Involve the local population, proceed only with their approval and provide for a degree of local control; Be undertaken with 'intra-generational' equity in mind, Le. with the idea of access to a fair distribution of benefits and costs among tourism promoters and host peoples and areas, not only now but in the future; Be planned and managed with regard for the protection of the natural environment for future generations; Be planned in an integrated manner with other economic sectors; and Be assessed on an ongoing basis to evaluate impacts and permit action to counter any negative effects (Cronin, 1990). Cronin (1990) places considerable emphasis on the intra-generational facet of sustainable tourism development. It is necessary for sustainable tourism development to recognise the contribution that local communities and cultures make to the experience of tourists and that local people must share in the benefits of tourism developments. Relatedly, it is suggested that for sustainable tourism development to become a reality, local people and governmental authorities must show a willingness to participate, and be allowed to participate, in the shaping of the local tourism industry. The issue of local community access to the benefits of tourism development is crucial. This is particularly true for developing countries, as the general concept of sustainable development recognises the need for economic growth in these areas so that the quality of life can be enhanced and human aspirations satisfied. Concern for the protection of environmental resources (particularly natural resources) could be taken to the point where innovation and appropriate tourism development is stifled, thus removing the opportunity for the poor in the current generation to benefit from tourism development. Striking the right 71
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;q::a THE ROLE OF TOURISM IN NATURA
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;;;4 ABSTRACT In recent years the u
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TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE: INTR
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4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.8.1 4.8.2 4.8
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5.4.1.6 Batawana and Natural Resour
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CHAPTER SEVEN: NATURAL RESOURCE UTI
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8.2.1 Migration in the Okavango Del
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REFERENCES APPENDICES XIV 417 459
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Table 6.15: Room and Bed Occupancy
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LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1: Study o
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ACP ADP AE10 AIDS ALDEP ARAP BAMB B
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SPSS STMT TGLP UB UNDP UNEP UNRISD
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Empirical evidence, however, does n
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norms of its people. To date, the g
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numbers (Appendix One). Investigati
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4. Establish the extent of natural
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detailed in chapter five. The insti
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destinations, concentrating on its
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serious academic consideration. The
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Figure 2.1: Study of Tourism and Ch
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management strategies are implement
Page 44 and 45: Tourism should thus be regarded as
Page 46 and 47: exchange, investment, income and em
Page 48 and 49: problem. He states that it is time
Page 50 and 51: The first assumption is largely bas
Page 52 and 53: However, as Western (1993) points o
Page 54: Fourth, tourism may bring about dev
Page 57 and 58: tourism, the type of skills that ar
Page 59 and 60: Despite the various economic benefi
Page 61 and 62: Some cultural modifications due to
Page 63 and 64: 2.8.5 Environmental Benefits of Tou
Page 65 and 66: However, as Gunn (1994) points out,
Page 67 and 68: or displacing another group of user
Page 69 and 70: protection of the environment was t
Page 71 and 72: These range from the numerous impac
Page 73 and 74: difficult to foresee and which refl
Page 75 and 76: carried unintentionally on the shoe
Page 77 and 78: Pyrenees (Smith and Jenner, 1989).
Page 79 and 80: waste is being developed or upgrade
Page 81 and 82: water, however, inhibits the natura
Page 83 and 84: arrivals and Riccione hoteliers alo
Page 85 and 86: 1981). Butler (1991) recognises tha
Page 87 and 88: economic growth in developed countr
Page 89 and 90: infinite or infinitely renewable 'f
Page 91 and 92: also be described as a 'deep ecolog
Page 93: Having highlighted the general conc
Page 97 and 98: The English Tourist Board (1991, ci
Page 99 and 100: as ideas and technologies on the pa
Page 101 and 102: eap net benefits, tourism can be cl
Page 103 and 104: 2.14 Summary and Conclusion This ch
Page 105 and 106: conceptualised as a global process
Page 107 and 108: alienated from the means of product
Page 109 and 110: extent that the quality of life wit
Page 111 and 112: The successful creation or inventio
Page 113 and 114: modern production, it has moved awa
Page 115 and 116: As previously discussed, the proces
Page 117 and 118: The origination of world-standardis
Page 119 and 120: attraction to less developed econom
Page 121 and 122: Hence, the government must take act
Page 123 and 124: develop with other sectors of the e
Page 125 and 126: Methodology 4.1 Introduction CHAPTE
Page 127 and 128: hypothesised, further, that tourism
Page 129 and 130: Qualitative research within the fie
Page 131 and 132: 4.7 Sample In order to test the hyp
Page 133 and 134: 4.8.2 Structured Questionnaire Meth
Page 136 and 137: 4.9 Methods of Data Collation, Synt
Page 138: development and changes in traditio
Page 141: Review of selected international an
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diminishing returns of extractive i
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Figure 5.1: Map of Botswana Source:
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ate and economic progress seldom pa
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percent growth targeted in Vision 2
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informal sector work, especially in
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Table 5.1: Land UselTenure in Botsw
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Table 5.2: Land UselTenure Change i
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5.2.7 Pressure on the Land In most
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international controversy over its
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hectare minimum necessary for house
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the backbone of the rural economy.
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Botswana affords many possibilities
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Panhandle, the Okavango River then
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to the south, east and west (Ross,
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Fish populations in the entire Okav
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themselves in the main stream of th
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Presently in the Ngamiland district
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vendor, retailing, the production o
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third furrow planting and mechanica
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farmer who supplies crops to the vi
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I Unlike consumptive resource utili
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southern edge of the Delta, the Bot
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Bugakwe and Xanekwe people traditio
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The leader in each San band or grou
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Descendants of San groups that live
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5.4.1.6 Batawana and Natural Resour
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payment of tribute as a way of ensu
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more rifles, European-made clothing
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wildlife products. Fish, reptiles,
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However, Rey was anxious to establi
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Figure 5.8: Structure of Natural Re
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other hand, veterinary officers wer
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• • • • As with other natur
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• Problems with solid waste dispo
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natural resources and to increase t
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ineffective in ensuring that all to
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development which emphasise the par
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The National Conservation Strategy
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The growth of tourism in the Okavan
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fifteen year period. The community-
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• The 5-year review policy left m
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government also provides 85 percent
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Prefodiafoka fence constructed in 1
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for several consecutive years, the
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and water, but fortunately the Bots
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It is in the context of the above t
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income, and presumably high spendin
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Although several researchers noted
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In order for local Botswana citizen
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Figure 6.1: Percentage of Total Arr
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Table 6.2: Total Arrivals in Botswa
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earth's wilderness areas shrink rap
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eference to the Okavango Delta regi
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With regards to tourist/visitor num
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European and North American origin,
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most direct economic impacts of tou
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Table 6.9: Number of Accommodation
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tend to vary in terms of standards
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Safari hunters or spot (commercial)
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validated by the Tawana Land Board
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companies, 6 (40 percent) to jointl
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Lastly, wildlife tends to congregat
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Table 6.17: Major Safari Companies/
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indicates that Botswana has more ar
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6.4 The Economic Impact of Tourism
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weakest with agriculture, construct
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As noted earlier, the greater major
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Table 6.25: Estimated Tourism-Relat
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evenue collection from the various
Page 291 and 292:
Despite these conflicting employmen
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According to the study carried out
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management positions in the tourism
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Seventy four percent of the 50 loca
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Table 6.33: List of Private Air Cha
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CHAPTER SEVEN Natural Resource Util
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natural resources of water and pris
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According to personal interviews co
Page 308 and 309:
• • • • • • • • Dea
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Experience shows that some animals,
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inhabitants of the Okavango Delta r
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control is vested with central gove
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conservation area. This led to conf
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Table 7.4: Main Stakeholders, Land
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7.2.3.1 Arable Farming and Wildlife
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Table 7.6: Livestock Ownership in K
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Furthermore, the NCS has failed to
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Botswana because populations of bot
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Delta, while previously inhabitants
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facilities that do not have boats,
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• • • • • 7.2.6 Since the
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different products, wood is perhaps
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Today, Hyphaene petersiana palms as
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populations in the rivers have drop
Page 341 and 342:
The importance of people remaining
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CBNRM aims at alleviating poverty a
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the wildlife populations and their
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no longer an important livelihood s
Page 349 and 350:
• • • • • • 7.3.4 Clari
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Leases are given for 15 year period
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Table 7.10: Community-Based Organis
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7.3.6.3 The Okavango Paler's Trust
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at the same time allowing them to d
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eports on financial management and
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Table 7.11: Brief Review on Progres
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their land, etc., such as cash, mea
Page 365 and 366:
7.4 Summary and Conclusion While th
Page 367 and 368:
8.2 Impacts of Tourism on Local Cul
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tourists in an area provide a sourc
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are left to perform all the traditi
Page 373 and 374:
8.3.1 Positive Environmental Impact
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the country. As a result, it is ass
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most of these impacts remain unchec
Page 379 and 380:
According to Lovemore Sola of Conse
Page 381 and 382:
8.3.2.2 Creation of Illegal Roads i
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permeability. Pollutants can theref
Page 385 and 386:
iverine systems. According to Tache
Page 387 and 388:
implement laws and regulations cont
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and resulted in the publication of
Page 391 and 392:
lowest, and substantial proportions
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Angola considered the construction
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ministries most closely involved in
Page 398 and 399:
most to lose if the Okavango in its
Page 400 and 401:
• Development of monitoring syste
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Suggested Solutions • Sustainable
Page 404 and 405:
CHAPTER NINE Evaluation, Recommenda
Page 406 and 407:
circumstances, the impacts of touri
Page 408 and 409:
For example, the government has gon
Page 410 and 411:
As such, it is only recently that t
Page 412 and 413:
According to Torres (1996), a wide
Page 414 and 415:
of 1986 and the Tourism Policy of 1
Page 416 and 417:
Even though Botswana has developed
Page 418 and 419:
iodiversity conservation and rural
Page 420 and 421:
overriding challenge facing authori
Page 422 and 423:
As such, this study has revealed th
Page 424 and 425:
The development of tourism in the O
Page 426 and 427:
9.10.1 Prospects for Integrated Res
Page 428 and 429:
the Botswana government committed i
Page 430 and 431:
Thirdly, almost the only interest e
Page 432 and 433:
The following recommendations are p
Page 434 and 435:
Activities common at this time incl
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knowledge to bring about sustainabl
Page 438 and 439:
the entire Okavango River Basin, by
Page 440 and 441:
9.14 Summary and Conclusion This st
Page 442 and 443:
Department of Tourism (DOT). 2000.
Page 444 and 445:
Okavango People's Wildlife Trust (O
Page 446 and 447:
Van Buren, L. 2002. Regional Survey
Page 448 and 449:
Briassoulis, H. 1991. Tourism and t
Page 450 and 451:
Hermans, Q. 1990. Opportunities and
Page 452 and 453:
Mbaiwa, J. E. 1999. Prospects for S
Page 454 and 455:
Rothert, S. 2000. The Water Page: D
Page 456 and 457:
Tsiang, T. 1990. An Overview of Tou
Page 458 and 459:
Cohen, E. 1978. Impact of Tourism o
Page 460 and 461:
Kocasoy, G. 1989. The relationship
Page 462 and 463:
Smith, C. and Jenner, P. 1989. Tour
Page 464 and 465:
Niles, E. 1991. Sustainable tourism
Page 466 and 467:
Bennet, J. A. 1995. Managing Touris
Page 468 and 469:
Cooper, C. 1997. Parameters and Ind
Page 470 and 471:
Filion, F., Foley, J. and Jacquemot
Page 472 and 473:
Harrison, D. 1994. Tourism, Capital
Page 474 and 475:
Leontidou, L. 1990. The Mediterrane
Page 476 and 477:
Morris, A. 1998. Geography and Deve
Page 478 and 479:
Rojek, C. and Urry, J. 1997. Tourin
Page 481 and 482:
Western, D. 1993. Foreword: definin
Page 483 and 484:
APPENDIX ONE TOURISM, NATURAL RESOU
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Prospects for Mbaiwa, J. 1999 Resou
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State Interests and Swatuk, L. A. 2
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10. Is the condition of the environ
Page 491 and 492:
APPENDIX THREE LIST OF HOTELS, LODG
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10. Does this hotel/lodge/safari ca
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16. Do you think that the developme
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