the role of tourism in natural resource management in the okavango ...

difficult to foresee and which reflect the often complex inter-dependency of plants,
animals and their physical environment (Hunter and Green, 1995).
The negative impacts of tourists' feet are not restricted to terrestrial ecosystems.
Hamele (1988) notes that the damage to coral reefs resulting from the contact of
divers' flippers and the choking effect of disturbed sediment can be severe. Blake
and Becher (1997), referring to tourism in the Pacific Island States, report that a
large proportion of the coral and small fish life around the margins of boat jetties and
hotel beaches has been irreparably damaged or destroyed due to excessive walking
on coral reef beds by tourists at low tide. The action of motor boats, surf boards and
yachts also damages aquatic ecosystems, such as reed beds, while the construction
of marinas to house these crafts can completely destroy, or degrade beyond repair,
important mangrove and other lagoon habitats (Jackson, 1984).
Tourism may also lead to the selective removal, collection or killing of (often rare)
plants and animals. McLaren (1998), for example, argues that the natural
environment of some African countries is increasingly being destroyed through
pressures from wildlife tourism. The collection and use of wild plants and animal
species in countries like Senegal for the manufacture and marketing of trophies, gifts
and souvenirs for the tourism industry has become a major problem. This is
occurring even where the animals are 'protected', and contributes to the
development of ecological imbalances. The collection and killing of marine animals
for the souvenir trade has also been highlighted, for example, in the Mediterranean
and Pacific Islands (Milne, 1990), with marked impacts on local ecology. Hunter and
Green (1995) describe the collection of shells, rocks and plants on the unique
Galapagos Islands by poorly controlled groups of tourists from private yachts and
small tourist boats often venturing beyond marked tourist routes. Also observed in
this study was the growing disturbance of plant and animal life close to tourist trails,
leading to fears that animals would ultimately avoid certain areas, as animals may
well migrate out of an area used by tourists if harassed. Alternatively, the over­
reliance of tourists on certain animal species as a source of food may prove to be
disadvantageous to the animals in the long term (Sindiyo and Pertet, 1984).
During certain times of the year, tourists may have a severe impact on animal
breeding success, and the protection of breeding grounds from the impact of tourists
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