novel approaches to expression and detection of oestrus in dairy cows

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loss of body condition, due to energy balance regulation, which has been related to poor oestrous expression (Mayne et al., 2002). NEBAL and loss of body condition has been related to attenuation of LH pulse frequency and low levels of blood glucose, insulin and IGF-1 which together impair the production of oestradiol by the dominant follicle (Butler, 2003). However, Macmillan et al., (1996) also found that the effect of milk yield and stage of lactation was not an absolute indicator of NEBAL. Lower yielding cows could also have lower feed intake and thus have a more severe energy deficit which could affect oestrus. However NEBAL is highly correlated with genetic improvement for milk yield (Veerkamp and Beerda, 2007). A further possibility is that as cows get older their activity decreases due to age (Lovendahl and Chagunda, 2009). It is also possible that cows are culled for infertility and only fertile cows survive to the next lactation; so a larger proportion of the cows in later lactations display oestrous behaviour and oestrus is more easily detected. 2.4.1.2 Oestrous Number As oestrous cycles progressed without conception the activity at each oestrus decreased post partum. Typically the first oestrus post partum is silent (Ferguson, 1996) and it is possible that the first oestrus was removed from analysis in this study. All oestruses before 25 days post partum were removed, due to increased activity levels because of re-entry of cows into the herd after solitary calving, due to increased activity associated with the establishment of hierarchies. The current results demonstrate that activity is greater at the 2 nd oestrus, although there was no significant difference between activity at 1 st and 2 nd oestrus. Therefore activity at oestrus decreased from the 3 rd oestrus onwards. Previous reports have suggested a similar pattern, that oestrous expression increases up to the third oestrous cycle post partum (Ferguson, 1996;Thatcher and Wilcox, 1973). Peralta et al., (2005) reported a significant increase in number of standing events in cows less than 79 days in milk, compared to those more than 80 days in milk, where there was also a larger proportion of problem cows (Peralta et al., 2005). This is in agreement with results of the current study and provides an explanation for increased activity in the first oestrous cycles after calving. Another possible explanation for the decrease in 62
oestrous expression with increasing lactation is that a greater cumulative yield of milk has been produced. However these cows are moving into positive EBAL so it is less likely that the effects of lactation yield are seen on oestrous expression at this stage. Lower activity levels in later lactation could be related to the larger proportion of problem cows more than 80 days in milk (Peralta et al., 2005). In conclusion there may be many underlying causes for decreased oestrous expression and it is possible that problem cows do not survive to get in calf due to culling for infertility. 2.4.1.3 Time of Year There was a larger increase in activity at oestrus, in periods 2 and 3 compared to periods 1 and 4. Periods 2 and 3 are normally associated with hotter temperatures, and it is suggested that heat stress and factors associated with heat stress, affecting follicle development and steroidogenesis, can influence oestrous expression (Roche, 2006). Reports in this area are inconsistent; some authors report increased expression of oestrus in the hotter, summer months (Peralta et al., 2005); others report the opposite, with increased expression in the colder, winter months (Nebel et al., 1997). However, the patterns associated with temperature are mostly from outside the UK, and few reports from studies in the UK have found any association between temperature and oestrous expression. This relationship applies more to countries with hot climates with large fluctuations in temperature. Some components of the reproductive system are susceptible to extreme temperatures compromising the steroidogenic capabilities of the theca and granulosa cells (Wolfenson et al., 2000;De Rensis and Scaramuzzi, 2003). The results of the current study, however were recorded in the UK temperate climate and therefore could be affected by other causal effects of seasonal variation on reproduction; day length, photoperiod, humidity, level of nutrition, management or combinations of these factors (Critser et al., 1987). Cattle are not seasonal breeders in the strictest sense, as they now breed and cycle all year round, but seasonal influences can have an effect. This is more subtle than in the sheep, in which reproduction can only occur at certain times of year and is strictly controlled by photoperiod influencing the ability of oestrogens to inhibit LH (Legan et al., 1977). The influence of season on cattle reproduction has been linked to a number of events associated with reproduction; return to cyclicity is longer if calving is in winter compared to summer (Hansen, 1985) and season of birth and 63
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NOVEL APPROACHES TO EXPRESSION AND
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TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS
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2.2.3 Statistical Analyses ........
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5.3 RESULTS .......................
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Furthermore, automated software was
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LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1 Hormonal
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LIST OF TABLES Table 1.1 Trends in
Page 15 and 16:
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ˚ ˚C μM 2D
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CHAPTER 1 - Introduction & Literatu
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the past 50 years and duration of o
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Oestrus growing follicle (Staigmill
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ecomes the main inhibitor of FSH an
Page 25 and 26:
calf at 40-50 days post partum; inv
Page 27 and 28: al., 2006). However, aged sperm hav
Page 29 and 30: can occur within 2-3 days, but if t
Page 31 and 32: educes the incidence of problem cow
Page 33 and 34: oestradiol, the LH surge and ovulat
Page 35 and 36: The secondary signs of oestrus can
Page 37 and 38: There are also changes in normal be
Page 39 and 40: engage in more natural behaviours i
Page 41 and 42: 1983). Exact explanations and mecha
Page 43 and 44: 2006) and disruption of LH secretio
Page 45 and 46: 1.4.3.2 Milk Yield and Nutrition Di
Page 47 and 48: influence the ability of the ovary
Page 49 and 50: cyclicity can be delayed if dietary
Page 51 and 52: indication for the optimal time to
Page 53 and 54: calving), 3) pre-breeding heat date
Page 55 and 56: 1.5.2 Physiological Changes Physiol
Page 57 and 58: 1.5.2.3 Body and Milk Temperature T
Page 59 and 60: physical activity and stage of the
Page 61 and 62: caused by the general environment t
Page 63 and 64: may be gained. This is because data
Page 65 and 66: In summary the objective was to for
Page 67 and 68: diet, with concentrates at milking.
Page 69 and 70: oestrus was defined as 3 consecutiv
Page 71 and 72: The interaction between parity and
Page 73 and 74: individual oestrus was not signific
Page 75 and 76: Table 2.4 The effects of the intera
Page 77: (361 vs. 578 points, respectively,
Page 81 and 82: the blood (Sangsritavong et al., 20
Page 83 and 84: CHAPTER 3 - Single Nucleotide Polym
Page 85 and 86: population owing to previous select
Page 87 and 88: Table 3.1 Cont. Follicle Stimulatin
Page 89 and 90: 3.2.4 Sequencing of DNA in the Labo
Page 91 and 92: was achieved. PCR products were rem
Page 93 and 94: 3.4 DISCUSSION The objectives of th
Page 95 and 96: fertility and oestrous expression.
Page 97 and 98: CHAPTER 4 - Development of a Novel
Page 99 and 100: In summary UWB seems a good option
Page 101 and 102: Initial tests were carried out to i
Page 103 and 104: Therefore this demonstrates that X
Page 105 and 106: which is most important for achievi
Page 107 and 108: Figure 4.9 Horizontal - Vertical Di
Page 109 and 110: that UWB is matching the ‘truth
Page 111 and 112: mounting cow. For example height ch
Page 113 and 114: Backpack 1 st put on in AI stalls E
Page 115 and 116: Cows’ behaviour was assessed at 5
Page 117 and 118: or that the cows were in an area of
Page 119 and 120: plane, but mostly in achieving high
Page 121 and 122: Develop techniques for analysis of
Page 123 and 124: in elastic silicone moulded over a
Page 125 and 126: and time of mount, duration of moun
Page 127 and 128: observed matched with increases in
Page 129 and 130:
5.3 RESULTS Results demonstrate pos
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Figure 5.2 Graph showing mounting b
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Table 5.1 Results from POC 2 showin
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Table 5.3 Efficiency and accuracy o
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oestrus and oestrus it is clear to
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P4 Concentration, ng/ml P4 Concentr
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Page 143 and 144:
Page 145 and 146:
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Activity Activity Activity Activity
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5.4 DISCUSSION The aim of this work
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averaged 70% which was lower than t
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when the cows lie down, especially
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the level of oestrous activity was
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technology larger herds must be mon
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monitoring could also monitor non-l
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antennae which could affect accurac
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predispose cows to illness e.g. met
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CHAPTER 6 - Overall Discussion & Co
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oestrus, h 2 =0.27 (Lovendahl et al
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The final section of this thesis de
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ate. By using UWB in a commercial s
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provides an insight the potential o
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BLOWEY, R. (2005) Factors associate
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ovine gonadotrophin releasing hormo
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GINTHER, O. J., KOT, K., KULICK, L.
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associated with embryonic survival
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ody condition at parturition on end
Page 189 and 190:
Signs in a 24-h Tie-Stalled Dairy H
Page 191 and 192:
SHERMAN, E. L., NKRUMAH, J. D., MUR
Page 193 and 194:
Influence of negative energy balanc
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