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Klamath Project Operations Biological Assessment Coho Salmon: Environmental Baseline flow. Road systems, skid trails, and landings where the soils become compacted may also accelerate runoff. Ditches concentrate surface runoff and intercept subsurface flow bringing it to the surface (Chamberlin et al. 1991; Furniss et al. 1991). Significant increases in the magnitude of peak flows or the frequency of channel forming flows can increase channel scouring or accelerate bank erosion. Increases in sediment contributions to streams are generally attributable to changes in rates of erosion on hill slopes through such processes as increased landslide activity, sheet wash erosion associated with road management activities (construction and maintenance), yarding operations, and fires (both wildfires and controlled burns). The largest contributions of sediment are typically from road construction activities (Furniss et al. 1991). Significant increases in the sediment supplied to streams can cause channel aggradations, pool filling, additional bank erosion, and losses of channel structures and habitat diversity. Stable large woody debris structures within the stream channel may be lost through direct removal, channel aggradations, debris torrents, or gradual attrition through lack of recruitment. These losses result in a reduction in sediment storage capacity, fewer and shallower scour pools, and a reduction of in-stream cover for fish (Chamberlin et al. 1991). Changes in peak flows and sediment yield directly related to removing vegetation will typically persist for only a few years and tend to decrease over time as the watershed recovers and new vegetation grows. Changes associated with roads may persist indefinitely as roads are maintained or abandoned without treatment. Stream channel responses may take decades or centuries to recover (Chamberlin et al. 1991; Furniss et al. 1991). Mining Mining activities within the Klamath River Basin began prior to 1900. Many of the communities in the Klamath River Basin originated with the gold mining boom of the 1800s. Water was diverted and pumped for use in sluicing and hydraulic mining operations. This resulted in dramatic increases in turbidity levels altering stream morphology. The negative impacts of stream sedimentation on fish abundance were observed as early as the 1930s. Several streams impacted by mining operations and containing large volumes of silt seldom had large populations of salmon or trout (Smith 1939). A past gold mine operation within the Klamath River Basin showing hydraulic mining. Unknown date. Since the 1970s, large-scale commercial mining operations have been eliminated due to stricter environmental regulations. Mining operations can adversely affect spawning gravels; result in increased poaching activity, decreased survival of fish 183
Klamath Project Operations Biological Assessment Coho Salmon: Environmental Baseline eggs and juveniles, decreased benthic invertebrate abundance, adversely affect water quality; and impact stream banks and channels. Agriculture Crop cultivation and livestock grazing in the upper Klamath River Basin began in the mid-1850s. Since then, valleys have been cleared of brush and trees to provide more farm land. By the late 1800s, native perennial grasses were replaced by various species of annual grasses and forbs 20 . This, combined with soil compaction, resulted in higher surface erosion and greater peak water flows in streams. Other annual and perennial crops cultivated included grains, alfalfa hay, potatoes and corn. Besides irrigation associated with the Klamath Project, other non-Klamath Project irrigators operate within the Klamath River Basin. The Project supplies water annually to approximately 200,000 to 220,000 acres of the 240,000 acres within the Project boundaries. Current agricultural development in the Shasta River Valley consists of approximately 51,600 acres of irrigated land. Estimated consumptive use of irrigation water by the crops is approximately 100,000 AF per year. Current agricultural development in the Scott Center Pivot Irrigation System, Northern California, Mount Shasta is in the background. In the past, return flows from irrigation has resulted in elevated nutrient levels (referred to as nutrient loading) in the Klamath River and in some tributaries. River Valley consists of approximately 33,000 acres of irrigated land with an estimated consumptive use by the crops of approximately 71,000 AF per year. Actual diversions would exceed the consumptive use of the crops due to irrigation application efficiency, conveyance losses in the system and surface evaporation. It is also noted that in response to the NMFS 2002 BO, Reclamation conducted a Pilot Water Bank program to augment Klamath River flows. With no unused 20 A broad-leaved herb other than a grass, especially one growing in a field, prairie, or meadow 184
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Biological Assessment The Effects o
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Biological Assessment The Effects o
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Klamath Project Operations Biologic
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY This biological a
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Part 1 INTRODUCTION, ACTION AREA, A
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Part 2 ENDANGERED SUCKERS Sucker De
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Table 2-7. Upper Klamath Basin Nutr
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Description Part 5 BALD EAGLES A la
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Figure 5-1. Bald Eagle range in Nor
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Part 7 CONSULTATION HISTORY Section
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Part 9 LITERATURE CITED Agrawal, A.
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Accomplishment Report, Winter 2007.
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