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ARCHAEOLOGY OF KIEV 339Pocajna, it is most unlikely that the subsistence economy could have beenbased on the production of food and commodities in and around Kiev alone.The population of proto-urban Kiev was certainly partly dependent on theinflux of products from tributary tribes and groups for subsistence.It is very likely that craft production developed both in households of theelite and among the population of the Podil. One significant change in thisearly phase is the rapid development of a professional or semi-professionalpotters' craft. It was not centralized (Tolocko 198IB, pp. 295-98).Elements of the population were certainly involved in long-distancetrade already at the beginning of the tenth century. Numerous finds ofSamanid dirhams indicate that part of this trade was connected with theMuslim East (Tolocko 1976, pp. 3-6; Callmer 1981, p. 46). Trade wasevidently also conducted with the Byzantine Empire from an early date(Tolocko 1976, pp. 6-10; Callmer 1981, pp. 46-47). The Samanid dirhamsbelong mainly to the first half of the tenth century. Trade eastwardmust have been channeled along the major caravan routes, one of whichstarted in Central Europe, passed through Kiev, and probably reached theKhazar center on the lower Volga (Jacob, 1927, p. 12). A connection withthe Bulgar state at the bend of the Volga was also likely, as is indicated bythe archaeological material, which, among other things, includes Finno-Ugric artifacts (Karger 1959, pp. 216-17; Tolocko 1970, p. 147; cf. alsoRybakov 1969, pp. 194-95, and Kropotkin 1973).If one judges by the coin finds, the volume of trade between Kiev andByzantium was less voluminous. This impression may be misleading, however,because the lack of coins could be due to the reluctance of the Byzantinesto export their currency. By contrast, Samanid dirhams were probablyminted for export (cf. Noonan 1988). Perhaps a better measure of tradewith the Byzantines are amfora finds. These, too, were few in the tenthcentury, suggesting that trade with Byzantium was limited and specialized.The social structure of Kiev in the early phase has already been mentionedin connection with architecture and settlement layout. The localsociety was highly complex, including princely families and their followersand retainers with families. These households included not only producersof food and ordinary commodities for daily use, but also craftsmen supplyingjewelry, weapons (perhaps armour), and other items. These socialaggregates probably did not include the whole population. Among the generalpopulation there were also a number of merchants and of people connectedwith them, and there may also have been some independent craftsmen.