The planet we live on: The beginnings of the Earth Sciences

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List of Figures1.1 Studying a rock exposure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2 Sandstone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.3 Granite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.4 A crystal of the mineral diamond. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.5 Crystals of the mineral calcite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.6 Granite, close up view. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.7 Gneiss, close up view . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.8 A garnet crystal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61.9 Marble. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61.10 Salt deposited by evaporation of a drying lake. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61.11 A cemented sedimentary rock. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61.12 A mineral vein. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81.13 Hematite with calcite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81.14 Some important minerals and their identification properties . . . . . . . . . 91.15 Important minerals - 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101.16 A sedimentary rock face. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111.17 Sedimentary rocks showing bedding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121.18 A breccia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121.19 Mudstone, in a cliff face. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131.20 Conglomerate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141.21 A piece of sandstone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141.22 Angular desert sediment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141.23 Dried up lake salt deposits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141.24 Cross bedding in sandstones. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151.25 Ancient mud cracks preserved in mudstone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151.26 Ancient wave ripple marks preserved in sandstone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161.27 Modern sand dunes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161.28 Ancient dune cross bedding preserved in a sandstone cliff face. . . . . . . . 171.29 Tracks, trails and burrows preserved on a ripple-marked sandstone. . . . . 17viii
1.30 Coal seams in an opencast coal quarry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181.31 Limestone, close up view. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191.32 Oolitic limestone, close up view. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201.33 Turbidite sequence, tilted by folding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201.34 A melting glacier depositing glacial till. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211.35 A fossil colonial coral preserved in shallow tropical sea sediments. . . . . . 221.36 Fossilised trees that must have grown on the land. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221.37 A fossil trilobite, found in shallow sea sediment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231.38 Fossil ammonites, indicating sediments that <strong>we</strong>re deposited in the sea. . . . 241.39 ‘Massive’ igneous rocks; a granite rock face without layers. . . . . . . . . . 261.40 Gabbro, close up view. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271.41 Basalt with vesicles, close up view. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281.42 Granite, close up view. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281.43 Basalt erupting from a fissure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291.44 A basalt flow that cooled and fractured into vertical columnar basalt. . . . 301.45 A basalt pillow lava exposed in a rock face. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301.46 A central vent volcano. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311.47 Deposit of volcanic ash with small bombs in the upper layer. . . . . . . . . 321.48 Igneous dykes cutting through the surrounding rock. . . . . . . . . . . . . 331.49 An old slate quarry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341.50 Mudstone metamorphosed in a metamorphic aureole. . . . . . . . . . . . . 351.51 Slate – a low-grade metamorphic rock. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361.52 Bedding and cleavage in slate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371.53 Schist, a medium-grade metamorphic rock. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381.54 Gneiss, a high-grade metamorphic rock. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391.55 Marble. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391.56 Metaquartzite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401.57 Folded rocks, showing a syncline and an anticline. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411.58 A region of folded rocks seen from the air. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421.59 Reverse faults. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431.60 A thrust fault. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431.61 A normal fault. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441.62 A strike-slip fault. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441.63 A quarry wall, showing bedding planes and joints. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451.64 An unconformity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461.65 Graptolites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491.66 Graptolite evolution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49ix
Page 1 and 2: Basic Books in ScienceBook 6<strong
Page 3 and 4: BASIC BOOKS IN SCIENCE- a Series of
Page 5 and 6: BASIC BOOKS IN SCIENCE- a Series of
Page 7 and 8: Looking ahead - If you came across
Page 9: 3.2 Plate tectonics (20th Century)
Page 13 and 14: 3.4 Alfred Wegener, the polar explo
Page 15 and 16: 5.14 A GPS remote volcano monitorin
Page 17 and 18: Figure 1.2:minerals.A sandstone roc
Page 19 and 20: Even diamond can have different col
Page 21 and 22: Figure 1.8: A red garnet crystal in
Page 23 and 24: Figure 1.12: Crystals of minerals i
Page 25 and 26: Hematite, Fe 2 O 3 - earthy red, me
Page 27 and 28: Figure 1.17: Sedimentary rocks show
Page 29 and 30: Figure 1.20: A close up view of a p
Page 31 and 32: Figure 1.26: Ancient wave ripple ma
Page 33 and 34: Figure 1.30: Coal seams in an openc
Page 35 and 36: Figure 1.32: Close up view of a pie
Page 37 and 38: Figure 1.35: A fossil colonial cora
Page 39 and 40: Figure 1.38: Fossil ammonites, indi
Page 41 and 42: Figure 1.39: ‘Massive’ igneous
Page 43 and 44: Figure 1.41: A close up view of a p
Page 45 and 46: Figure 1.44: A basalt flow that coo
Page 47 and 48: Figure 1.47: Deposit of volcanic as
Page 49 and 50: Figure 1.49: An old slate quarry, s
Page 51 and 52: Figure 1.51: Slate, a low-grade met
Page 53 and 54: Figure 1.53: Schist, a medium-grade
Page 55 and 56: Figure 1.56: Metaquartzite, produce
Page 57 and 58: Figure 1.58: A region of folded roc
Page 59 and 60: Figure 1.61: A normal fault. This s
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Figure 1.64: An unconformity. Older
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proper geological maps. Fossils hav
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Cephalopods are not extinct, but th
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Figure 1.68: A shelled cephalopod f
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You can try the rock sequencing pri
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Chapter 2Reading landscapes: how la
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Figure 2.3: Rock fragments loosened
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Figure 2.6: The jo
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Figure 2.10: The m
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are forming them. Similarly the sha
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Figure 2.19: This photo was taken f
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Figure 2.25: Dinosaur tracks conser
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• On coastal sections, whenever p
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found evidence that the Earth was a
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Figure 3.3: James Hutton, the ‘Fo
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Figure 3.5: A page of Wegener’s 1
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Figure 3.7: The st
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Figure 3.10: The r
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Figure 3.13: The m
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Figure 3.15: The S
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Figure 3.19: An ocean versus contin
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Figure 3.23: Map of the major tecto
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Figure 3.26: Global temperature cha
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Figure 3.29: A computer generated p
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Figure 3.31: The
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planet extended th
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Figure 4.1: William Smith’s geolo
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Millionsof yearsago (Ma)01000Some M
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ocks whilst the first definite plan
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Figure 4.9: The ch
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Figure 4.12: The 4
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Millionsof years Some Major Earth E
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Figure 5.2: Strike-slip movement (r
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Figure 5.4: The So
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Figure 5.6: An ash eruption rising
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Figure 5.10: A hazard zone map of t
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isk to humans. The
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Figure 5.14: A GPS (global satellit
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None of these methods has yet prove
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Figure 5.17: A windfarm in Ireland.
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Figure 5.19: A beautifully preserve
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Another ‘missing link’ find has
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Figure 5.22: A dinosaur reconstruct
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Figure 5.25: A working aggregate-pr
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Figure 5.26: The E
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Chapter 6Understanding what geologi
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Figure 6.2: A drilling rig used for
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When an oil/gas field has been foun
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Figure 6.6: Groundwater flowing out
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Dam disaster in Italy, when the wav
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Figure 6.10: A slab foundation, bui
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An example of this is investigation
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GlossaryAbsolute age The</s
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Carbon capture The
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Crustal shortening This results of
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Evaporite deposits (or evaporites)
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Geophysical survey Using the method
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“Integrated waste management” <
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Metamorphism The r
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Pore spaces (or pores) Gaps bet<str
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Saltation Sediment movement by flui
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Suspension Sediment movement by flu
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AcknowledgementsPermission to repri
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Figure 2.3 A scree slope. Photo ID:
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Figure 1.15a Hematite.Figure 1.15b
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Figure 1.28 Dune cross bedding in s
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Figure 3.18 An island arc volcano,
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Figure 5.21 Excavations at the dino
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