The planet we live on: The beginnings of the Earth Sciences

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3.30 A graph of observed increases in seal level over the past 50 years withprojections of the effects of the melting of continental ice sheets in the next100 years. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 933.31 <strong>The</strong> ‘Keeling Curve’ of atmospheric carbon dioxide measurements, showingannual cycles and a steady increase. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 943.32 A photograph of James Lovelock, taken recently. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 953.33 One of James Lovelock’s ‘Daisyworld’ simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 954.1 William Smith’s geological map. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 984.2 Key events in the evolution of life. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 994.3 Key events of life shown on a geological time line. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1004.4 Two early fossil fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1014.5 A fossil amphibian. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1034.6 A fossil reptile. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1034.7 A fossil mammal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1034.8 <strong>The</strong> earliest fossil bird that has been found - Archaeopterix. . . . . . . . . . 1034.9 <strong>The</strong> change of biodiversity over time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1044.10 A cladogram showing the relationships of the major groups of life on Earth. 1054.11 <strong>The</strong> relationships of major animal groups, shown by a cladogram. . . . . . 1054.12 <strong>The</strong> 450 million year old Earth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064.13 <strong>The</strong> 375 million year old Earth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064.14 Supercontinent Pangaea, 275 million years ago. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064.15 Continents on the 100 million year old Earth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064.16 ‘Milestones’ in the evolution of <strong>planet</strong> Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1085.1 A school in San Salvador destroyed by an earthquake. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1095.2 Strike-slip movement in the San Andreas Fault. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1105.3 Earthquake damage in Japan - Chuetsu earthquake, 2004. . . . . . . . . . 1115.4 <strong>The</strong> South East Asian tsunami, 26th December, 2004. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1125.5 A basaltic eruption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1135.6 An ash eruption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1145.7 A lahar from the crater of Mount St. Helens. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1155.8 A bus damaged by a lahar flow from Mount St. Helens. . . . . . . . . . . . 1155.9 Pyroclastic flows (nueés ardentes). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1155.10 A hazard zone map. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1165.11 Landslide triggered by the El Salvador earthquake in 2001. . . . . . . . . . 1175.12 Buildings that did not resist the Mexico City earthquake of 1985. . . . . . 1185.13 Seismic monitoring of volcanic activity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119xii
5.14 A GPS remote volcano monitoring station. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1205.15 An interferogram of the Izmit earthquake, Turkey, 1999. . . . . . . . . . . 1215.16 <strong>The</strong> sources of fuel used in current world energy consumption. . . . . . . . 1235.17 A windfarm in Ireland. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1245.18 Solar panels being used in Mallorca. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1245.19 An Archaeopteryx fossil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1265.20 A fossil from the Cambrian Burgess Shale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1275.21 A dinosaur excavation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1295.22 A dinosaur reconstruction showing how they might have <strong>live</strong>d. . . . . . . . 1305.23 <strong>The</strong> Australopithecus skeleton ‘Lucy’. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1315.24 A reconstruction of the ‘Lucy’ Australopithecus skeleton. . . . . . . . . . . 1315.25 A working aggregate-producing quarry on Sifnos, Greece. . . . . . . . . . . 1325.26 <strong>The</strong> Eden ‘biome’ Project in Cornwall, UK, in an old china clay pit. . . . . 1345.27 A landfill site in Hawaii, USA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1356.1 Geologists at work, examining cores from a borehole. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1366.2 A drilling rig used for oil/gas exploration in the North Sea. . . . . . . . . . 1386.3 Different types of oil and gas traps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1396.4 A seismic cross section. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1396.5 Electrical resistivity surveying. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1416.6 Groundwater flowing out of the bedrock in a spring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1426.7 Groundwater flow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1426.8 A wind pump extracting groundwater to be used by agriculture. . . . . . . 1436.9 Acid mine drainage from an abandoned mine in Spain. . . . . . . . . . . . 1456.10 A slab foundation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1466.11 Deep foundations being constructed in Spain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1466.12 A retaining wall supporting <strong>we</strong>aker materials in a cutting. . . . . . . . . . 1466.13 Gabions supporting a river bank. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1466.14 Did an asteroid impact cause dinosaurs to become extinct?.... . . . . . . . 1476.15 ... or did huge volcanic eruptions cause the dinosaurs to die out? . . . . . . 1476.16 A team of geologists at work on a volcano. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149xiii
Page 1 and 2: Basic Books in ScienceBook 6<strong
Page 3 and 4: BASIC BOOKS IN SCIENCE- a Series of
Page 5 and 6: BASIC BOOKS IN SCIENCE- a Series of
Page 7 and 8: Looking ahead - If you came across
Page 9 and 10: 3.2 Plate tectonics (20th Century)
Page 11 and 12: 1.30 Coal seams in an opencast coal
Page 13: 3.4 Alfred Wegener, the polar explo
Page 17 and 18: Figure 1.2:minerals.A sandstone roc
Page 19 and 20: Even diamond can have different col
Page 21 and 22: Figure 1.8: A red garnet crystal in
Page 23 and 24: Figure 1.12: Crystals of minerals i
Page 25 and 26: Hematite, Fe 2 O 3 - earthy red, me
Page 27 and 28: Figure 1.17: Sedimentary rocks show
Page 29 and 30: Figure 1.20: A close up view of a p
Page 31 and 32: Figure 1.26: Ancient wave ripple ma
Page 33 and 34: Figure 1.30: Coal seams in an openc
Page 35 and 36: Figure 1.32: Close up view of a pie
Page 37 and 38: Figure 1.35: A fossil colonial cora
Page 39 and 40: Figure 1.38: Fossil ammonites, indi
Page 41 and 42: Figure 1.39: ‘Massive’ igneous
Page 43 and 44: Figure 1.41: A close up view of a p
Page 45 and 46: Figure 1.44: A basalt flow that coo
Page 47 and 48: Figure 1.47: Deposit of volcanic as
Page 49 and 50: Figure 1.49: An old slate quarry, s
Page 51 and 52: Figure 1.51: Slate, a low-grade met
Page 53 and 54: Figure 1.53: Schist, a medium-grade
Page 55 and 56: Figure 1.56: Metaquartzite, produce
Page 57 and 58: Figure 1.58: A region of folded roc
Page 59 and 60: Figure 1.61: A normal fault. This s
Page 61 and 62: Figure 1.64: An unconformity. Older
Page 63 and 64: proper geological maps. Fossils hav
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Cephalopods are not extinct, but th
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Figure 1.68: A shelled cephalopod f
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You can try the rock sequencing pri
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Chapter 2Reading landscapes: how la
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Figure 2.3: Rock fragments loosened
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Figure 2.6: The jo
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Figure 2.10: The m
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are forming them. Similarly the sha
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Figure 2.19: This photo was taken f
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Figure 2.25: Dinosaur tracks conser
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• On coastal sections, whenever p
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found evidence that the Earth was a
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Figure 3.3: James Hutton, the ‘Fo
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Figure 3.5: A page of Wegener’s 1
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Figure 3.7: The st
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Figure 3.10: The r
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Figure 3.13: The m
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Figure 3.15: The S
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Figure 3.19: An ocean versus contin
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Figure 3.23: Map of the major tecto
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Figure 3.26: Global temperature cha
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Figure 3.29: A computer generated p
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Figure 3.31: The
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planet extended th
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Figure 4.1: William Smith’s geolo
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Millionsof yearsago (Ma)01000Some M
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ocks whilst the first definite plan
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Figure 4.9: The ch
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Figure 4.12: The 4
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Millionsof years Some Major Earth E
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Figure 5.2: Strike-slip movement (r
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Figure 5.4: The So
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Figure 5.6: An ash eruption rising
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Figure 5.10: A hazard zone map of t
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isk to humans. The
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Figure 5.14: A GPS (global satellit
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None of these methods has yet prove
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Figure 5.17: A windfarm in Ireland.
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Figure 5.19: A beautifully preserve
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Another ‘missing link’ find has
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Figure 5.22: A dinosaur reconstruct
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Figure 5.25: A working aggregate-pr
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Figure 5.26: The E
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Chapter 6Understanding what geologi
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Figure 6.2: A drilling rig used for
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When an oil/gas field has been foun
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Figure 6.6: Groundwater flowing out
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Dam disaster in Italy, when the wav
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Figure 6.10: A slab foundation, bui
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An example of this is investigation
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GlossaryAbsolute age The</s
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Carbon capture The
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Crustal shortening This results of
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Evaporite deposits (or evaporites)
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Geophysical survey Using the method
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“Integrated waste management” <
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Metamorphism The r
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Pore spaces (or pores) Gaps bet<str
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Saltation Sediment movement by flui
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Suspension Sediment movement by flu
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AcknowledgementsPermission to repri
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Figure 2.3 A scree slope. Photo ID:
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Figure 1.15a Hematite.Figure 1.15b
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Figure 1.28 Dune cross bedding in s
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Figure 3.18 An island arc volcano,
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Figure 5.21 Excavations at the dino
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