The planet we live on: The beginnings of the Earth Sciences

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Asthenosphere <strong>The</strong> zone in the mantle beneath the lithosphere, bet<strong>we</strong>en around 100and 250 km beneath the Earth’s surface; is partially molten (1 - 5% liquid) andflows, carrying the tectonic platesAttrition <strong>The</strong> rounding of rock fragments during transportationAureole (metamorphic) <strong>The</strong> zone of baked rock around an intrusion; the thermalmetamorphic zoneAxial plane surface A plane formed by joining the axes of folded layers togetherBaked margin <strong>The</strong> thin zone of metamorphosed rock along the margin of a narrowigneous intrusion, such as a dyke or sill; a thermal metamorphic zoneBasalt A fine-grained mafic (magnesium and iron-rich) rock, dark in colour; commonlyforms lavas and small intrusionsBed (sedimentary) A layer in a sedimentary rock, originally laid down as a layer ofsedimentBenioff zone Zone of earthquakes sloping diagonally downwards where a plate is subducting(sometimes at 90°)Biofuel Crop grown to produce po<strong>we</strong>r for human useBiological <strong>we</strong>athering <strong>The</strong> physical and chemical effects of plants on rocks and soils,including the extensive effects of microscopic bacteriaBorehole core A cylinder of rock drilled from a rock formation using a hollow drill bitBreccia A coarse-grained rock with angular grains (sedimentary or formed along a faultas a fault breccia)Brittle behaviour When a material behaves in a brittle manner, it breaks (fractures)under pressureBund An embankment; bunds are often built around quarries to reduce their environmentalimpactCalcite A mineral (CaCO 3 ), usually white or colourless, can form good ‘dog tooth’-shaped crystals, good cleavage, fairly low hardness, reacts with dilute acid, is themain mineral in limestone and marble, is found as a gangue mineral in veins and ascement in some sedimentary rocksCap rock An impermeable rock that can trap fluids (oil, natural gas, water) underground;includes impermeable mudstone, shale, clay, salt or clay layers along somefaults151
Carbon capture <strong>The</strong> reduction of carbon emissions by collecting the carbon dioxidereleased by coal-, oil- and gas-burning po<strong>we</strong>r stations and storing it in abandonedoil or gas fields - still experimental; also called carbon sequestrationCarbon footprint Relates to the amount of carbon dioxide released to the atmosphereby the activities of an individual or organisation; usually related directly to theenergy usedCarbon sequestration <strong>The</strong> reduction of carbon emissions by collecting the carbon dioxidereleased by coal-, oil- and gas-burning po<strong>we</strong>r stations and storing it in abandonedoil or gas fields - still experimental; also called carbon captureCarbon trading A commercial system designed to offset carbon production by one activity(such producing po<strong>we</strong>r from fossil fuel) with another that reduces carbonproduction (such as planting trees); ‘units’ of carbon may be ‘traded’ by differentorganisationsCement Formed of minerals that crystallise in the pore spaces of sediments, hardeningthem into sedimentary rocks; usually quartz or calciteCephalopod Cephalopods a<strong>live</strong> today include octopus and squid, but the geologicallyimportant ones <strong>live</strong>d in coiled shells and are nearly all extinct; the most <strong>we</strong>ll knownshelled cephalopods are the extinct ammonites and the living NautilusChemical <strong>we</strong>athering <strong>The</strong> chemical breakdown of rock surfaces; rainwater and soilwaterplay critical rolesChilled margin <strong>The</strong> edge of an igneous intrusion, that has cooled more quickly thanthe inside, and so is formed of finer-grained rockClay minerals Fine-grained sedimentary minerals; formed from the chemical breakdownof silicate minerals like feldspar and micaClean coal technology <strong>The</strong> use of new technology to burn coal and produce po<strong>we</strong>r,whilst keeping the release of polluting and greenhouse gases to a minimumCleavage (mineral) <strong>The</strong> way in which a mineral breaks, parallel to the <strong>we</strong>aknesses inits atomic structure; minerals can have no cleavage, or one, two, three, or fourdirections of cleavageCleavage (slaty or metamorphic) <strong>The</strong> slaty foliation of low-grade regional metamorphicrocks; forms slatesCoarse-grained igneous rock Rock formed by slow cooling of a magma, deep underground;crystals easily visibleColumnar basalt Basalts that have contracted as they cooled to form polygonal columns;the columns are usually vertical152
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Basic Books in ScienceBook 6<strong
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BASIC BOOKS IN SCIENCE- a Series of
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BASIC BOOKS IN SCIENCE- a Series of
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Looking ahead - If you came across
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3.2 Plate tectonics (20th Century)
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1.30 Coal seams in an opencast coal
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3.4 Alfred Wegener, the polar explo
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5.14 A GPS remote volcano monitorin
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Figure 1.2:minerals.A sandstone roc
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Even diamond can have different col
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Figure 1.8: A red garnet crystal in
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Figure 1.12: Crystals of minerals i
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Hematite, Fe 2 O 3 - earthy red, me
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Figure 1.17: Sedimentary rocks show
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Figure 1.20: A close up view of a p
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Figure 1.26: Ancient wave ripple ma
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Figure 1.30: Coal seams in an openc
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Figure 1.32: Close up view of a pie
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Figure 1.35: A fossil colonial cora
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Figure 1.38: Fossil ammonites, indi
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Figure 1.39: ‘Massive’ igneous
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Figure 1.41: A close up view of a p
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Figure 1.44: A basalt flow that coo
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Figure 1.47: Deposit of volcanic as
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Figure 1.49: An old slate quarry, s
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Figure 1.51: Slate, a low-grade met
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Figure 1.53: Schist, a medium-grade
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Figure 1.56: Metaquartzite, produce
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Figure 1.58: A region of folded roc
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Figure 1.61: A normal fault. This s
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Figure 1.64: An unconformity. Older
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proper geological maps. Fossils hav
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Cephalopods are not extinct, but th
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Figure 1.68: A shelled cephalopod f
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You can try the rock sequencing pri
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Chapter 2Reading landscapes: how la
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Figure 2.3: Rock fragments loosened
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Figure 2.6: The jo
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Figure 2.10: The m
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are forming them. Similarly the sha
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Figure 2.19: This photo was taken f
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Figure 2.25: Dinosaur tracks conser
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• On coastal sections, whenever p
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found evidence that the Earth was a
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Figure 3.3: James Hutton, the ‘Fo
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Figure 3.5: A page of Wegener’s 1
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Figure 3.7: The st
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Figure 3.10: The r
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Figure 3.13: The m
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Figure 3.15: The S
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Figure 3.19: An ocean versus contin
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Figure 3.23: Map of the major tecto
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Figure 3.26: Global temperature cha
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Figure 3.29: A computer generated p
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Figure 3.31: The
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planet extended th
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Figure 4.1: William Smith’s geolo
Page 115 and 116: Millionsof yearsago (Ma)01000Some M
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Page 119 and 120: Figure 4.9: The ch
Page 121 and 122: Figure 4.12: The 4
Page 123 and 124: Millionsof years Some Major Earth E
Page 125 and 126: Figure 5.2: Strike-slip movement (r
Page 127 and 128: Figure 5.4: The So
Page 129 and 130: Figure 5.6: An ash eruption rising
Page 131 and 132: Figure 5.10: A hazard zone map of t
Page 133 and 134: isk to humans. The
Page 135 and 136: Figure 5.14: A GPS (global satellit
Page 137 and 138: None of these methods has yet prove
Page 139 and 140: Figure 5.17: A windfarm in Ireland.
Page 141 and 142: Figure 5.19: A beautifully preserve
Page 143 and 144: Another ‘missing link’ find has
Page 145 and 146: Figure 5.22: A dinosaur reconstruct
Page 147 and 148: Figure 5.25: A working aggregate-pr
Page 149 and 150: Figure 5.26: The E
Page 151 and 152: Chapter 6Understanding what geologi
Page 153 and 154: Figure 6.2: A drilling rig used for
Page 155 and 156: When an oil/gas field has been foun
Page 157 and 158: Figure 6.6: Groundwater flowing out
Page 159 and 160: Dam disaster in Italy, when the wav
Page 161 and 162: Figure 6.10: A slab foundation, bui
Page 163 and 164: An example of this is investigation
Page 165: GlossaryAbsolute age The</s
Page 169 and 170: Crustal shortening This results of
Page 171 and 172: Evaporite deposits (or evaporites)
Page 173 and 174: Geophysical survey Using the method
Page 175 and 176: “Integrated waste management” <
Page 177 and 178: Metamorphism The r
Page 179 and 180: Pore spaces (or pores) Gaps bet<str
Page 181 and 182: Saltation Sediment movement by flui
Page 183 and 184: Suspension Sediment movement by flu
Page 185 and 186: AcknowledgementsPermission to repri
Page 187 and 188: Figure 2.3 A scree slope. Photo ID:
Page 189 and 190: Figure 1.15a Hematite.Figure 1.15b
Page 191 and 192: Figure 1.28 Dune cross bedding in s
Page 193 and 194: Figure 3.18 An island arc volcano,
Page 195 and 196: Figure 5.21 Excavations at the dino
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