The planet we live on: The beginnings of the Earth Sciences

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Divergent margin <strong>The</strong> margin of a tectonic plate where new plate material is formedas plates are moved apart; also called a constructive plate marginDolerite A medium-grained mafic rock, dark in colour; commonly forms dykes and sillsDownhole logging Measurements made remotely by lo<strong>we</strong>ring sensors down a previouslydrilledboreholeDuctile behaviour When a material behaves in a ductile way, it bends and flows underpressure, and stays in the same shape when the pressure is removedDune A mound of sand formed under water or by the action of wind; contains crossbeddingDyke An igneous intrusion that cuts across the bedding planes of sedimentary rock oracross igneous or metamorphic rockEarth System Science <strong>The</strong> study of the Earth as a series of systems that interact withone anotherEarthquake (deep focus) An earthquake that originates bet<strong>we</strong>en 300 and 700 km belowthe surface; these occur only at destructive convergent plate margins, whereplates are subductedEarthquake (intermediate depth) An earthquake that originates bet<strong>we</strong>en 70 and 300km below the surface; these occur only at destructive convergent plate margins,where plates are subductedEarthquake (shallow focus) An earthquake that originates bet<strong>we</strong>en 0 and 70 km belowthe surface; these occur at all plate margins but shallow focus earthquakes aloneoccur at constructive (divergent) and conservative (transform) plate marginsEarthquake focus <strong>The</strong> place under the surface where the fracture of a fault producesearthquake shock wavesEcological niche <strong>The</strong> local environment in which an organism <strong>live</strong>s and interacts withother organismsElastic behaviour When a material behaves elastically, it deforms under pressure, butthen bounces back to its original shape when the pressure is removedEpicentre <strong>The</strong> point where the shock waves from an earthquake first reach the Earth’ssurface - the surface waves then radiate out from this point like ripples on a pond;most earthquake damage usually occurs at the epicentreErosion <strong>The</strong> removal of solid material, which has often been loosened by <strong>we</strong>athering - bygravity, flowing water, wind or ice; erosion is usually the beginning of transportationEukaryotes Organisms that have cells with nuclei155
Evaporite deposits (or evaporites) Salts (e.g. halite) that crystallise out when a lakeor arm of the sea evaporatesExceptional preservation (lagerstätten) Unusual examples in the fossil record wheregroups of fossils are very <strong>we</strong>ll preserved, usually with many of their soft parts attachedExfoliation <strong>The</strong> formation of curved sheets of rock by <strong>we</strong>athering of the rock’s surface;common on granites affected by heating and cooling <strong>we</strong>atheringExploration <strong>we</strong>ll A borehole drilled to prospect for oil or gas (or water)Extinction <strong>The</strong> dying out of a group of organismsExtrusive (lava, pyroclastics or igneous rock) Extrusion is caused by magma reachingthe surface and erupting volcanically as lava, ash, or larger pyroclastic materialsFacing stones Thin slabs of ornamental rock attached to the walls of buildingsFault <strong>The</strong> brittle failure of rock under pressure, with movement of one side relative tothe other; earthquakes are caused by faultingFault breccia Fractured angular rock fragments in a fault plane, caused by rock breakageduring fault movementFault displacement <strong>The</strong> amount of movement of layers by faulting, measured along thefault planeFault plane <strong>The</strong> fracture surface of a fault, along which relative movement occurredFault scarp A steep slope in the landscape caused when rocks either side of a majorfault have differed in their resistance to erosionFaunal succession (law of) <strong>The</strong> law that all animals follow one another in geologicaltime in a predictable sequence; plants have a similar predictable sequence - <strong>we</strong> nowknow that this is due to evolutionFeedback Change in a system resulting in further change, either reinforcing the change(positive feedback) or resisting the change (negative feedback)Feldspar A mineral silicate, usually white, sometimes pink, can form good almost rectangularcrystals, good cleavage, hard, common in igneous and some metamorphicrocksFine-grained igneous rock Rock formed by quick cooling of a magma, e.g. in a surfacelava; crystals usually too small to see, even with a hand lensFocus (earthquake) <strong>The</strong> place under the surface where the fracture of a fault producesearthquake shock waves156
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Basic Books in ScienceBook 6<strong
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BASIC BOOKS IN SCIENCE- a Series of
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BASIC BOOKS IN SCIENCE- a Series of
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Looking ahead - If you came across
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3.2 Plate tectonics (20th Century)
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1.30 Coal seams in an opencast coal
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3.4 Alfred Wegener, the polar explo
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5.14 A GPS remote volcano monitorin
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Figure 1.2:minerals.A sandstone roc
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Even diamond can have different col
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Figure 1.8: A red garnet crystal in
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Figure 1.12: Crystals of minerals i
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Hematite, Fe 2 O 3 - earthy red, me
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Figure 1.17: Sedimentary rocks show
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Figure 1.20: A close up view of a p
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Figure 1.26: Ancient wave ripple ma
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Figure 1.30: Coal seams in an openc
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Figure 1.32: Close up view of a pie
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Figure 1.35: A fossil colonial cora
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Figure 1.38: Fossil ammonites, indi
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Figure 1.39: ‘Massive’ igneous
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Figure 1.41: A close up view of a p
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Figure 1.44: A basalt flow that coo
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Figure 1.47: Deposit of volcanic as
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Figure 1.49: An old slate quarry, s
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Figure 1.51: Slate, a low-grade met
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Figure 1.53: Schist, a medium-grade
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Figure 1.56: Metaquartzite, produce
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Figure 1.58: A region of folded roc
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Figure 1.61: A normal fault. This s
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Figure 1.64: An unconformity. Older
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proper geological maps. Fossils hav
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Cephalopods are not extinct, but th
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Figure 1.68: A shelled cephalopod f
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You can try the rock sequencing pri
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Chapter 2Reading landscapes: how la
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Figure 2.3: Rock fragments loosened
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Figure 2.6: The jo
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Figure 2.10: The m
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are forming them. Similarly the sha
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Figure 2.19: This photo was taken f
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Figure 2.25: Dinosaur tracks conser
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• On coastal sections, whenever p
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found evidence that the Earth was a
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Figure 3.3: James Hutton, the ‘Fo
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Figure 3.5: A page of Wegener’s 1
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Figure 3.7: The st
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Figure 3.10: The r
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Figure 3.13: The m
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Figure 3.15: The S
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Figure 3.19: An ocean versus contin
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Figure 3.23: Map of the major tecto
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Figure 3.26: Global temperature cha
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Figure 3.29: A computer generated p
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Figure 3.31: The
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planet extended th
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Figure 4.1: William Smith’s geolo
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Millionsof yearsago (Ma)01000Some M
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ocks whilst the first definite plan
Page 119 and 120: Figure 4.9: The ch
Page 121 and 122: Figure 4.12: The 4
Page 123 and 124: Millionsof years Some Major Earth E
Page 125 and 126: Figure 5.2: Strike-slip movement (r
Page 127 and 128: Figure 5.4: The So
Page 129 and 130: Figure 5.6: An ash eruption rising
Page 131 and 132: Figure 5.10: A hazard zone map of t
Page 133 and 134: isk to humans. The
Page 135 and 136: Figure 5.14: A GPS (global satellit
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Page 139 and 140: Figure 5.17: A windfarm in Ireland.
Page 141 and 142: Figure 5.19: A beautifully preserve
Page 143 and 144: Another ‘missing link’ find has
Page 145 and 146: Figure 5.22: A dinosaur reconstruct
Page 147 and 148: Figure 5.25: A working aggregate-pr
Page 149 and 150: Figure 5.26: The E
Page 151 and 152: Chapter 6Understanding what geologi
Page 153 and 154: Figure 6.2: A drilling rig used for
Page 155 and 156: When an oil/gas field has been foun
Page 157 and 158: Figure 6.6: Groundwater flowing out
Page 159 and 160: Dam disaster in Italy, when the wav
Page 161 and 162: Figure 6.10: A slab foundation, bui
Page 163 and 164: An example of this is investigation
Page 165 and 166: GlossaryAbsolute age The</s
Page 167 and 168: Carbon capture The
Page 169: Crustal shortening This results of
Page 173 and 174: Geophysical survey Using the method
Page 175 and 176: “Integrated waste management” <
Page 177 and 178: Metamorphism The r
Page 179 and 180: Pore spaces (or pores) Gaps bet<str
Page 181 and 182: Saltation Sediment movement by flui
Page 183 and 184: Suspension Sediment movement by flu
Page 185 and 186: AcknowledgementsPermission to repri
Page 187 and 188: Figure 2.3 A scree slope. Photo ID:
Page 189 and 190: Figure 1.15a Hematite.Figure 1.15b
Page 191 and 192: Figure 1.28 Dune cross bedding in s
Page 193 and 194: Figure 3.18 An island arc volcano,
Page 195 and 196: Figure 5.21 Excavations at the dino
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