The planet we live on: The beginnings of the Earth Sciences

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BacteriaAncestralorganismArchaeaFishancestorFishAmphibiansReptilesFungiPlantsAnimalsEukaryotesBirdsMammalsFigure 4.10: A cladogram showing the relationshipsof the major groups of life onEarth.Figure 4.11: <strong>The</strong> relationships of major animalgroups, shown by a cladogram.Around 1000 million years ago, all the continents had combined together into one hugelandmass in the southern hemisphere that <strong>we</strong> call Rodinia. This supercontinent beganto break up around 750 million years ago and the different continents <strong>we</strong>re shuffled around,but by about 550 million years ago all the major continents that now form the southernhemisphere continents (today’s South America, Africa, Australia and Antarctica - withIndia as <strong>we</strong>ll) had recombined into another supercontinent that <strong>we</strong> call Gondwana,whilst the continents that <strong>we</strong> now identify as North America, Europe and Siberia <strong>we</strong>reall separate (Figure 4.12). As time moved on, ‘North America’ collided with ‘Europe’ asthe Gondwana continent moved northwards towards them (Figure 4.13)Bet<strong>we</strong>en 300 and 250 million years ago all the major continents on Earth had been joinedtogether again to form the largest supercontinent ever seen on Earth (Figure 4.14), that<strong>we</strong> call Pangaea. <strong>The</strong>n Pangaea began to split apart, forming first the North AtlanticOcean and later the South Atlantic Ocean, as Antarctica, Australia and India separatedfrom Africa. By around 100 million years ago, all the major continents <strong>we</strong> recognise todayhad separated from one another (Figure 4.15).<strong>The</strong> continents continued to move, India collided with Asia forming the Himalayan mountainrange, and Africa impacted on Europe forming the Alps. All the continents moved105
Figure 4.12: <strong>The</strong> 450 million year oldEarth. Separate ‘North America’, ‘Europe’and ‘Siberia’ with Gondwana formed of alltoday’s southern hemisphere continents onthe other side of the globe.Figure 4.13: <strong>The</strong> 375 million year oldEarth, after the collision of ‘North America’with ‘Europe’.Figure 4.14: Supercontinent Pangaea, 275million years ago.Figure 4.15: Continents on the 100 millionyear old Earth.106
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Basic Books in ScienceBook 6<strong
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BASIC BOOKS IN SCIENCE- a Series of
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BASIC BOOKS IN SCIENCE- a Series of
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Looking ahead - If you came across
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3.2 Plate tectonics (20th Century)
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1.30 Coal seams in an opencast coal
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3.4 Alfred Wegener, the polar explo
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5.14 A GPS remote volcano monitorin
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Figure 1.2:minerals.A sandstone roc
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Even diamond can have different col
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Figure 1.8: A red garnet crystal in
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Figure 1.12: Crystals of minerals i
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Hematite, Fe 2 O 3 - earthy red, me
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Figure 1.17: Sedimentary rocks show
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Figure 1.20: A close up view of a p
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Figure 1.26: Ancient wave ripple ma
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Figure 1.30: Coal seams in an openc
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Figure 1.32: Close up view of a pie
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Figure 1.35: A fossil colonial cora
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Figure 1.38: Fossil ammonites, indi
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Figure 1.39: ‘Massive’ igneous
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Figure 1.41: A close up view of a p
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Figure 1.44: A basalt flow that coo
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Figure 1.47: Deposit of volcanic as
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Figure 1.49: An old slate quarry, s
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Figure 1.51: Slate, a low-grade met
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Figure 1.53: Schist, a medium-grade
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Figure 1.56: Metaquartzite, produce
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Figure 1.58: A region of folded roc
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Figure 1.61: A normal fault. This s
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Figure 1.64: An unconformity. Older
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proper geological maps. Fossils hav
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Cephalopods are not extinct, but th
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Figure 1.68: A shelled cephalopod f
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Evaporite deposits (or evaporites)
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Geophysical survey Using the method
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“Integrated waste management” <
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Metamorphism The r
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Pore spaces (or pores) Gaps bet<str
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Saltation Sediment movement by flui
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Suspension Sediment movement by flu
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AcknowledgementsPermission to repri
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Figure 2.3 A scree slope. Photo ID:
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Figure 1.15a Hematite.Figure 1.15b
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Figure 1.28 Dune cross bedding in s
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Figure 3.18 An island arc volcano,
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Figure 5.21 Excavations at the dino
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