Figure 3.11: A c<strong>on</strong>structive boundary,where new oceanic plate is being formed.Figure 3.12: <str<strong>on</strong>g>The</str<strong>on</strong>g> formati<strong>on</strong> <strong>of</strong> magneticstripes at a c<strong>on</strong>structive plate margin.pole is where <strong>the</strong> north magnetic pole is today. If <strong>the</strong> magnetic field was in <strong>the</strong> samedirecti<strong>on</strong> for a l<strong>on</strong>g time, a broad stripe <strong>of</strong> ocean floor formed before it ‘flipped’ again.But if it changed quickly, <strong>on</strong>ly a narrow stripe was formed. Since <strong>the</strong> same thing happened<strong>on</strong> both sides <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ridge, <strong>the</strong> pattern <strong>on</strong> ei<strong>the</strong>r side is <strong>the</strong> same, but reversed. So <strong>on</strong>e sideis a mirror image <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r. <str<strong>on</strong>g>The</str<strong>on</strong>g> ‘magnetic stripes’ do not form straight lines, since <strong>the</strong>magnetism is recorded in <strong>the</strong> igneous rocks, and particularly <strong>the</strong> basalt lava flows at <strong>the</strong>surface. How <strong>the</strong> stripes form, with irregular borders, is shown in Figures 3.12 and 3.13.<str<strong>on</strong>g>The</str<strong>on</strong>g> oceanic ridges and <strong>the</strong> pattern <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir magnetic stripes show many places whereboth ridges and stripes are <strong>of</strong>fset. <str<strong>on</strong>g>The</str<strong>on</strong>g>se are <strong>the</strong> transform faults, first recognised by J.Tuzo Wils<strong>on</strong> (see Figure 3.14). <str<strong>on</strong>g>The</str<strong>on</strong>g>se are very unusual faults since, bet<str<strong>on</strong>g>we</str<strong>on</strong>g>en <strong>the</strong> two <strong>of</strong>fsetridges, <strong>the</strong> plates are moving in opposite directi<strong>on</strong>s, but bey<strong>on</strong>d <strong>the</strong> ridges, <strong>the</strong> plates aremoving in <strong>the</strong> same directi<strong>on</strong>, sometimes at slightly different rates. So, small earthquakesare comm<strong>on</strong> in <strong>the</strong> secti<strong>on</strong>s bet<str<strong>on</strong>g>we</str<strong>on</strong>g>en <strong>the</strong> ridges, but can also occur bey<strong>on</strong>d <strong>the</strong> ridges too.One <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> l<strong>on</strong>gest transform faults, joining two oceanic ridges that are now far apart,is <strong>the</strong> San Andreas Fault, which runs through California in <strong>the</strong> USA (see Figure 3.15).As <strong>the</strong> plate <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>we</str<strong>on</strong>g>stern side is moved north, relative to <strong>the</strong> south-moving plate <strong>on</strong><strong>the</strong> eastern side, <strong>the</strong>re are frequent small earthquakes. <str<strong>on</strong>g>The</str<strong>on</strong>g>re is also <strong>the</strong> chance <strong>of</strong> a verylarge earthquake, like <strong>the</strong> <strong>on</strong>e that destroyed most <strong>of</strong> San Francisco in 1906. Since platematerial is nei<strong>the</strong>r created nor destroyed at transform faults, but is c<strong>on</strong>served, <strong>the</strong>se arecalled ‘c<strong>on</strong>servative plate margins’.As <strong>the</strong> plates move away from <strong>the</strong> oceanic ridges <strong>the</strong>y cool down, causing <strong>the</strong> oceanicridge to subside. Meanwhile, <strong>the</strong> blanket <strong>of</strong> deep sea sediment deposited <strong>on</strong> <strong>the</strong> surfacebecomes thicker. <str<strong>on</strong>g>The</str<strong>on</strong>g> fur<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> plate has moved, <strong>the</strong> older <strong>the</strong> oldest sediment found <strong>on</strong><strong>the</strong> ocean floor. By drilling into <strong>the</strong>se deep sea sediments, <str<strong>on</strong>g>we</str<strong>on</strong>g> can recover <strong>the</strong> fossils <strong>the</strong>yc<strong>on</strong>tain and date <strong>the</strong> rocks. This shows that <strong>the</strong> fur<strong>the</strong>r away from a plate margin <strong>the</strong>ocean floor is, <strong>the</strong> older it is, providing more evidence for <strong>the</strong> movement <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> plates. Somaps <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> age <strong>of</strong> ocean floor sediments, such as Figure 3.16, show how <strong>the</strong> plates havemoved over time, and c<strong>on</strong>firm Harry Hess’s idea that <strong>the</strong> ocean floors are geologically81
Figure 3.13: <str<strong>on</strong>g>The</str<strong>on</strong>g> magnetic stripes south <strong>of</strong> Iceland.young, much younger than many <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> rocks that form <strong>the</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tinents.As <strong>the</strong>y are moved across <strong>the</strong> ocean floors, <strong>the</strong> plates c<strong>on</strong>tinue to cool, becoming steadilymore dense. Where two oceanic plates meet, <strong>the</strong> <strong>on</strong>e that has travelled <strong>the</strong> fur<strong>the</strong>r willnormally be <strong>the</strong> cooler and <strong>the</strong> more dense. Since <strong>the</strong>y are moving towards <strong>on</strong>e ano<strong>the</strong>r,something has to happen, and <strong>the</strong> denser plate sinks.<str<strong>on</strong>g>The</str<strong>on</strong>g> sinking <strong>of</strong> a dense plate is called subducti<strong>on</strong>. We know <strong>the</strong> angle <strong>of</strong> plate movementsince subducti<strong>on</strong> isn’t smooth, but as <strong>the</strong> plate slides downwards, <strong>the</strong> fricti<strong>on</strong> bet<str<strong>on</strong>g>we</str<strong>on</strong>g>en<strong>the</strong> rocks causes it to stick. When <strong>the</strong> pressure increases, it moves suddenly causing anearthquake. We can plot <strong>the</strong> positi<strong>on</strong>s and depths <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se earthquakes and find that <strong>the</strong>yfollow a sloping z<strong>on</strong>e into <strong>the</strong> mantle, called <strong>the</strong> Beni<strong>of</strong>f Z<strong>on</strong>e. As earthquakes occur toa depth <strong>of</strong> 700km, <str<strong>on</strong>g>we</str<strong>on</strong>g> know that <strong>the</strong> lithosphere stays solid and rigid to that depth too.Plates can be subducted into <strong>the</strong> mantle at different angles, but 45° is comm<strong>on</strong>.<str<strong>on</strong>g>The</str<strong>on</strong>g> plate <strong>of</strong> lithosphere which is subducted is made <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> upper part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> mantle withmafic igneous crustal rock <strong>on</strong> top, covered by a blanket <strong>of</strong> sediment saturated in seawater.As this sinks it becomes heated up and partially melts. <str<strong>on</strong>g>The</str<strong>on</strong>g> silic<strong>on</strong>-rich minerals meltfirst, so that <strong>the</strong> newly-formed molten rock is richer in silic<strong>on</strong>, and poorer in ir<strong>on</strong>, than<strong>the</strong> mafic rock that melts, so <strong>the</strong> new melt has an intermediate compositi<strong>on</strong>. This rises to<strong>the</strong> surface above <strong>the</strong> sloping plate and erupts. Since intermediate melts are much thickerthan runny basalt melts, <strong>the</strong>y <strong>of</strong>ten solidify in <strong>the</strong> vents <strong>of</strong> volcanoes resulting in violent82
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Basic Books in ScienceBook 6<strong
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BASIC BOOKS IN SCIENCE- a Series of
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BASIC BOOKS IN SCIENCE- a Series of
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Looking ahead - If you came across
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3.2 Plate tectonics (20th Century)
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1.30 Coal seams in an opencast coal
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3.4 Alfred Wegener, the polar explo
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5.14 A GPS remote volcano monitorin
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Figure 1.2:minerals.A sandstone roc
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Even diamond can have different col
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Figure 1.8: A red garnet crystal in
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Figure 1.12: Crystals of minerals i
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Hematite, Fe 2 O 3 - earthy red, me
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Figure 1.17: Sedimentary rocks show
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Figure 1.20: A close up view of a p
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Figure 1.26: Ancient wave ripple ma
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Figure 1.30: Coal seams in an openc
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Figure 1.32: Close up view of a pie
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Figure 1.35: A fossil colonial cora
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Figure 1.38: Fossil ammonites, indi
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Figure 1.39: ‘Massive’ igneous
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Figure 1.41: A close up view of a p
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Figure 5.25: A working aggregate-pr
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Figure 5.26: The E
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Chapter 6Understanding what geologi
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Figure 6.2: A drilling rig used for
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When an oil/gas field has been foun
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Figure 6.6: Groundwater flowing out
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Dam disaster in Italy, when the wav
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Figure 6.10: A slab foundation, bui
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An example of this is investigation
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GlossaryAbsolute age The</s
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Carbon capture The
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Crustal shortening This results of
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Evaporite deposits (or evaporites)
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Geophysical survey Using the method
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“Integrated waste management” <
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Metamorphism The r
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Saltation Sediment movement by flui
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Suspension Sediment movement by flu
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AcknowledgementsPermission to repri
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Figure 2.3 A scree slope. Photo ID:
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Figure 1.15a Hematite.Figure 1.15b
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Figure 1.28 Dune cross bedding in s
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Figure 3.18 An island arc volcano,
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Figure 5.21 Excavations at the dino