The planet we live on: The beginnings of the Earth Sciences

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Fold <strong>The</strong> ductile bending and flow of rock under pressure resulting in bent layers; foldscan be gentle and open, or tightFold axis <strong>The</strong> place where a rock is most bent by foldingFold limb <strong>The</strong> sloping layers either side of a fold axisFoliation <strong>The</strong> ‘layered’ texture of regionally metamorphosed rocks, caused by the metamorphicminerals being aligned with one another; includes metamorphic cleavage inslates, foliation in schists, and banding in gneissesForeshock A minor earthquake that takes place before a more major earthquakeFossil Traces of an organism preserved in rock (usually regarded as more than 10,000years old)Freeze-thaw <strong>we</strong>athering Weathering caused by many cycles of freezing and thawingGabbro A coarse-grained mafic (magnesium/iron-rich) rock, with predominantly darkmineralsGabions (gabion baskets) Galvanised wire mesh cubic or rectangular containers arounda metre or so across filled with pebbles or larger rock; used to stabilise slopes suchas cuttings, river banks and coastal cliffsGaia Hypothesis <strong>The</strong> idea that life on Earth causes negative feedback which regulatesmany of the Earth’s systems; proposed by James LovelockGalena A lead-containing mineral (PbS), silvery grey, metallic lustre, cube-shaped crystals,good cleavage, feels very dense, grey streak, low hardness (soft), found mainlyin mineral veinsGangue mineral Uneconomic mineral, like quartz and calcite, that may be thrown awaywhen metal ores are minedGarnet A silicate mineral, usually red or pink, often forms ball-shaped crystals, nocleavage, hard, found mainly in medium and high grade metamorphic rocksGeochemical survey Using chemical methods to explore and understand the Earth; thechemical testing is usually done in laboratories nowadays, using high tech methodsGeohazard A geological process that causes risk to humans and human constructionsGeological time <strong>The</strong> time from the origin of the Earth (around 4,560 million years ago)to the present dayGeopark An area of international importance for its geological interest, designated byUNESCO (the United National Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation)157
Geophysical survey Using the methods of physics to probe the Earth including: seismology,gravity, electrical methods, magnetic methods and radioactivityGeotechnical engineering <strong>The</strong> study of building foundations and the soil/bedrock inwhich constructions, such as dams, bridges, roads, railways and waterways are sited,together with landfill and coastal protection sitesGeotextiles (geofabrics) Tough textiles used to cover steep slopes to reduce erosionGlacial period (glaciation) A time when there <strong>we</strong>re extensive ice sheets on EarthGlacial till Sedimentary deposit formed largely of mixed mud and boulders, depositedby melting iceGneiss A metamorphic rock formed by high-grade regional metamorphism; containsmetamorphic banding, which sometimes has complex foldingGold (native gold) A mineral made of one element (Au) that can be found in mineralveins or eroded from veins and deposited in sedimentsGondwana A ‘supercontinent’ of all the current southern hemisphere continents (andIndia) formed around 550 million years agoGraded bed A layer of sediment that is coarser at the bottom and becomes finer upwards;frequently deposited by turbidity currentsGranite A coarse-grained, pale-coloured, silica-rich igneous rockGraptolite Extinct animals that formed small colonies strung together in saw-blade-likeshapes; <strong>live</strong>d in the open oceanGreenhouse effect <strong>The</strong> sun’s radiation absorbed by the Earth’s surface is re-radiatedas infra-red radiation (heat) that is absorbed by ‘greenhouse gases’ such as carbondioxide and methane, causing the surface of the <strong>planet</strong> to be warmer than it otherwisewould be; the gases behave rather like the panes of glass in a greenhouse‘trapping’ the heatGreenhouse gas A gas in the atmosphere that absorbs infra-red radiation (heat); includescarbon dioxide, methane and water vapourHalite A mineral, NaCl, white or pink, cube-shaped crystals, good cleavage, low hardness(very soft), soluble in water, forms rock salt depositsHard parts <strong>The</strong> solid parts of organisms, such as shells, bones, teeth or cartilage, whichare most likely to become fossilisedHardness (mineral) Usually measured by the scratch test, harder minerals will scratchsofter ones; Mohs’ scale of hardness ranges from 1 (very soft talc) to ten (very harddiamond)158
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Basic Books in ScienceBook 6<strong
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BASIC BOOKS IN SCIENCE- a Series of
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BASIC BOOKS IN SCIENCE- a Series of
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Looking ahead - If you came across
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3.2 Plate tectonics (20th Century)
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1.30 Coal seams in an opencast coal
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3.4 Alfred Wegener, the polar explo
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5.14 A GPS remote volcano monitorin
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Figure 1.2:minerals.A sandstone roc
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Even diamond can have different col
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Figure 1.8: A red garnet crystal in
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Figure 1.12: Crystals of minerals i
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Hematite, Fe 2 O 3 - earthy red, me
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Figure 1.17: Sedimentary rocks show
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Figure 1.20: A close up view of a p
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Figure 1.26: Ancient wave ripple ma
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Figure 1.30: Coal seams in an openc
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Figure 1.32: Close up view of a pie
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Figure 1.35: A fossil colonial cora
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Figure 1.38: Fossil ammonites, indi
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Figure 1.39: ‘Massive’ igneous
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Figure 1.41: A close up view of a p
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Figure 1.44: A basalt flow that coo
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Figure 1.47: Deposit of volcanic as
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Figure 1.49: An old slate quarry, s
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Figure 1.51: Slate, a low-grade met
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Figure 1.53: Schist, a medium-grade
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Figure 1.56: Metaquartzite, produce
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Figure 1.58: A region of folded roc
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Figure 1.61: A normal fault. This s
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Figure 1.64: An unconformity. Older
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proper geological maps. Fossils hav
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Cephalopods are not extinct, but th
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Figure 1.68: A shelled cephalopod f
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You can try the rock sequencing pri
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Chapter 2Reading landscapes: how la
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Figure 2.3: Rock fragments loosened
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Figure 2.6: The jo
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Figure 2.10: The m
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are forming them. Similarly the sha
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Figure 2.19: This photo was taken f
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Figure 2.25: Dinosaur tracks conser
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• On coastal sections, whenever p
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found evidence that the Earth was a
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Figure 3.3: James Hutton, the ‘Fo
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Figure 3.5: A page of Wegener’s 1
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Figure 3.7: The st
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Figure 3.10: The r
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Figure 3.13: The m
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Figure 3.15: The S
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Figure 3.19: An ocean versus contin
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Figure 3.23: Map of the major tecto
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Figure 3.26: Global temperature cha
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Figure 3.29: A computer generated p
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Figure 3.31: The
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planet extended th
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Figure 4.1: William Smith’s geolo
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Millionsof yearsago (Ma)01000Some M
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ocks whilst the first definite plan
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Figure 4.9: The ch
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Page 123 and 124: Millionsof years Some Major Earth E
Page 125 and 126: Figure 5.2: Strike-slip movement (r
Page 127 and 128: Figure 5.4: The So
Page 129 and 130: Figure 5.6: An ash eruption rising
Page 131 and 132: Figure 5.10: A hazard zone map of t
Page 133 and 134: isk to humans. The
Page 135 and 136: Figure 5.14: A GPS (global satellit
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Page 139 and 140: Figure 5.17: A windfarm in Ireland.
Page 141 and 142: Figure 5.19: A beautifully preserve
Page 143 and 144: Another ‘missing link’ find has
Page 145 and 146: Figure 5.22: A dinosaur reconstruct
Page 147 and 148: Figure 5.25: A working aggregate-pr
Page 149 and 150: Figure 5.26: The E
Page 151 and 152: Chapter 6Understanding what geologi
Page 153 and 154: Figure 6.2: A drilling rig used for
Page 155 and 156: When an oil/gas field has been foun
Page 157 and 158: Figure 6.6: Groundwater flowing out
Page 159 and 160: Dam disaster in Italy, when the wav
Page 161 and 162: Figure 6.10: A slab foundation, bui
Page 163 and 164: An example of this is investigation
Page 165 and 166: GlossaryAbsolute age The</s
Page 167 and 168: Carbon capture The
Page 169 and 170: Crustal shortening This results of
Page 171: Evaporite deposits (or evaporites)
Page 175 and 176: “Integrated waste management” <
Page 177 and 178: Metamorphism The r
Page 179 and 180: Pore spaces (or pores) Gaps bet<str
Page 181 and 182: Saltation Sediment movement by flui
Page 183 and 184: Suspension Sediment movement by flu
Page 185 and 186: AcknowledgementsPermission to repri
Page 187 and 188: Figure 2.3 A scree slope. Photo ID:
Page 189 and 190: Figure 1.15a Hematite.Figure 1.15b
Page 191 and 192: Figure 1.28 Dune cross bedding in s
Page 193 and 194: Figure 3.18 An island arc volcano,
Page 195 and 196: Figure 5.21 Excavations at the dino
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