The planet we live on: The beginnings of the Earth Sciences

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“Concentrate and contain” landfill method <strong>The</strong> landfill method of disposing of wastein impermeable sites that are capped, with no leakage to the surrounding environment,as used in recent years“Cone of depression” <strong>The</strong> inverted cone-shape of the water table around a pumpingwater <strong>we</strong>llConfined aquifer A water-bearing rock (aquifer) beneath an impermeable layer; thewater is usually under pressure and can flow naturally through boreholes to thesurfaceConglomerate A sedimentary rock formed of rounded pebbles (at least 2mm in diameter),usually with a fine-grained matrixConservative margin <strong>The</strong> sliding margin of a tectonic plate, where material is neitherconstructed or destroyed, but is conserved; also called a transform faultConstructive margin <strong>The</strong> margin of a tectonic plate where new plate material is formedas plates are moved apart; also called a divergent plate marginContinental Drift (<strong>The</strong>ory of) Alfred Wegener’s theory of the early 1900s, that thecontinents had moved across the Earth’s surface; the theory was later modified andincluded in the <strong>The</strong>ory of Plate TectonicsConvection current Flow caused when heated material rises, because of its lo<strong>we</strong>r density,then cools and sinks, producing a continuous currentConvergent margin <strong>The</strong> margin of a tectonic plate where plate material is ‘destroyed’as plates converge, either by partially melting and rising as magma, or by beingabsorbed in the mantle; also called a destructive marginCore (borehole) A cylinder of rock drilled from a rock formation using a hollow drillbitCorrelation <strong>The</strong> use of fossils to identify rocks of the same ageCross bed A bed laid down at an angle to the horizontal, usually in underwater dunesor wind-formed sand dunesCross-cutting relationships (law of) <strong>The</strong> stratigraphic law that anything (faults, joints,dykes, plutons, unconformity surfaces, etc.) which cut across anything else isyoungerCrust <strong>The</strong> outer part of the Earth above the mantle, differing chemically from the mantle;it comprises oceanic crust under oceans (5 - 10 km thick) (30 - 50 km thick) andcontinental crust beneath continents and averages 15 km in thicknessCrustal extension <strong>The</strong> results of tensional stress; the rocks take up more space on thesurface than they did before deformation153
Crustal shortening This results of folding and/or faulting under compressional forces;as a result, the surface rocks occupy less spaceCuesta An asymmetrical ridge in the landscape that typically forms where a tough rockwith a shallow dip (of usually less than 10°) overlies a <strong>we</strong>aker rock; also called anescarpmentCurrent ripple marks Non-symmetrical ripple marks formed by flowing water or wind;the steeper slope is in the down-current directionCuttings Wide, deep trenches excavated through hills or ridges for transportation routesDebris flow <strong>The</strong> downhill flow of debris from a landslide; debris flows contain coarsermaterial than mudflowsDeep focus earthquake An earthquake that originates bet<strong>we</strong>en 300 and 700 km belowthe surface; these occur only at destructive convergent plate margins, where platesare subductedDeep mine (mine) An underground excavation, usually for metal ores, other mineralsor coal; mine excavations usually have vertical shafts and horizontal aditsDeep time Geological timeDesiccation cracks Polygonal cracks left by drying mud - can be preserved in mudstones;also called mudcracksDestructive margin <strong>The</strong> margin of a tectonic plate where plate material is ‘destroyed’as plates converge, either by partially melting and rising as magma or by beingabsorbed in the mantle; also called a convergent marginDiagenesis <strong>The</strong> change of sediments to sedimentary rocks, through compression of theoverlying sediments and cementation (cement being deposited in pore spaces); alsocalled lithificationDiamond A mineral formed of carbon (C), usually colourless, forms good crystals, extremelyhard, rare“Dilute and disperse” landfill method <strong>The</strong> old landfill disposal method of allowingrainwater to disperse toxic elements of landfill in the rocks beneathDinosaur A type of reptile, now extinctDip <strong>The</strong> amount of downward slope of rock layers or structures, measured from thehorizontalDiscordant (drainage) A river system cutting across underlying geology and not affectedby it; often caused by a system that developed on overlying rocks, which havesince been cut through and eroded away154
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Basic Books in ScienceBook 6<strong
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BASIC BOOKS IN SCIENCE- a Series of
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BASIC BOOKS IN SCIENCE- a Series of
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Looking ahead - If you came across
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3.2 Plate tectonics (20th Century)
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1.30 Coal seams in an opencast coal
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3.4 Alfred Wegener, the polar explo
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5.14 A GPS remote volcano monitorin
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Figure 1.2:minerals.A sandstone roc
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Even diamond can have different col
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Figure 1.8: A red garnet crystal in
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Figure 1.12: Crystals of minerals i
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Hematite, Fe 2 O 3 - earthy red, me
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Figure 1.17: Sedimentary rocks show
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Figure 1.20: A close up view of a p
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Figure 1.26: Ancient wave ripple ma
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Figure 1.30: Coal seams in an openc
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Figure 1.32: Close up view of a pie
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Figure 1.35: A fossil colonial cora
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Figure 1.38: Fossil ammonites, indi
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Figure 1.39: ‘Massive’ igneous
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Figure 1.41: A close up view of a p
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Figure 1.44: A basalt flow that coo
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Figure 1.47: Deposit of volcanic as
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Figure 1.49: An old slate quarry, s
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Figure 1.51: Slate, a low-grade met
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Figure 1.53: Schist, a medium-grade
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Figure 1.56: Metaquartzite, produce
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Figure 1.58: A region of folded roc
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Figure 1.61: A normal fault. This s
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Figure 1.64: An unconformity. Older
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proper geological maps. Fossils hav
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Cephalopods are not extinct, but th
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Figure 1.68: A shelled cephalopod f
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You can try the rock sequencing pri
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Chapter 2Reading landscapes: how la
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Figure 2.3: Rock fragments loosened
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Figure 2.6: The jo
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Figure 2.10: The m
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are forming them. Similarly the sha
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Figure 2.19: This photo was taken f
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Figure 2.25: Dinosaur tracks conser
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• On coastal sections, whenever p
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found evidence that the Earth was a
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Figure 3.3: James Hutton, the ‘Fo
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Figure 3.5: A page of Wegener’s 1
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Figure 3.7: The st
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Figure 3.10: The r
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Figure 3.13: The m
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Figure 3.15: The S
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Figure 3.19: An ocean versus contin
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Figure 3.23: Map of the major tecto
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Figure 3.26: Global temperature cha
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Figure 3.29: A computer generated p
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Figure 3.31: The
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planet extended th
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Figure 4.1: William Smith’s geolo
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Millionsof yearsago (Ma)01000Some M
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Page 119 and 120: Figure 4.9: The ch
Page 121 and 122: Figure 4.12: The 4
Page 123 and 124: Millionsof years Some Major Earth E
Page 125 and 126: Figure 5.2: Strike-slip movement (r
Page 127 and 128: Figure 5.4: The So
Page 129 and 130: Figure 5.6: An ash eruption rising
Page 131 and 132: Figure 5.10: A hazard zone map of t
Page 133 and 134: isk to humans. The
Page 135 and 136: Figure 5.14: A GPS (global satellit
Page 137 and 138: None of these methods has yet prove
Page 139 and 140: Figure 5.17: A windfarm in Ireland.
Page 141 and 142: Figure 5.19: A beautifully preserve
Page 143 and 144: Another ‘missing link’ find has
Page 145 and 146: Figure 5.22: A dinosaur reconstruct
Page 147 and 148: Figure 5.25: A working aggregate-pr
Page 149 and 150: Figure 5.26: The E
Page 151 and 152: Chapter 6Understanding what geologi
Page 153 and 154: Figure 6.2: A drilling rig used for
Page 155 and 156: When an oil/gas field has been foun
Page 157 and 158: Figure 6.6: Groundwater flowing out
Page 159 and 160: Dam disaster in Italy, when the wav
Page 161 and 162: Figure 6.10: A slab foundation, bui
Page 163 and 164: An example of this is investigation
Page 165 and 166: GlossaryAbsolute age The</s
Page 167: Carbon capture The
Page 171 and 172: Evaporite deposits (or evaporites)
Page 173 and 174: Geophysical survey Using the method
Page 175 and 176: “Integrated waste management” <
Page 177 and 178: Metamorphism The r
Page 179 and 180: Pore spaces (or pores) Gaps bet<str
Page 181 and 182: Saltation Sediment movement by flui
Page 183 and 184: Suspension Sediment movement by flu
Page 185 and 186: AcknowledgementsPermission to repri
Page 187 and 188: Figure 2.3 A scree slope. Photo ID:
Page 189 and 190: Figure 1.15a Hematite.Figure 1.15b
Page 191 and 192: Figure 1.28 Dune cross bedding in s
Page 193 and 194: Figure 3.18 An island arc volcano,
Page 195 and 196: Figure 5.21 Excavations at the dino
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