<strong>Proceedings</strong>, FOETIK <strong>2009</strong>, Dept. of Linguistics, Stockholm Universityopen class words and were therefore excludedfrom the analysis. The sections A16-A21 constitutedthe group of close class words belongingto the semantic categories listed in Table 2.Table 1. The semantic categories included for estimationof number of open class words.Section Semantic category Examples of wordsA2 Animals (real/toys) anka (eng. duck)A3 Vehicles (real/toys) bil (eng. car)A4 Toys boll (eng. ball)A5 Food and beverage apelsin (eng. orange)A6 Clothes jacka (eng. jacket)A7 Body parts mun (eng. mouth)A8 Small objects/things blomma (eng. flower)A9 Furniture and rooms badkar (eng. bathtub)A10 Objects outdoors gata (eng. street)A11 Places to go affär (eng. store)A12 People flicka (eng. girl)A14 Actions arbeta (eng. work)A15 Adjectives arg (eng. angry)Table 2. The semantic categories included for estimationof number of close class words.Section Semantic category Examples of wordsA16 Pronouns de (eng. they)A17 Time expressions dag (eng. day)A18 Prepositions/location bakom (eng. behind)A19 Amount and articles alla (eng. everybody)A20 Auxiliary verbs ha (eng. have)A21 Connectors/questions och (eng. and)ProcedureThe materials were collected 2004-2007 bymembers of the Development group, Phoneticlaboratory, Stockholm University. The subjectsand their parents visited the lab approximatelyonce/month. Each visit started off with an eyetrackingsession to explore specific speech perceptionresearch questions, and then a videorecording (app. 15-20 minutes) of adult-infantinteraction was made. Towards the end of thevisit, one of the experimenters entered the studioand filled the questionnaire based on parentalinformation while the parent was playingwith the child. Occasionally, if the parent had toleave the lab immediately after the recordingsession, she/he returned the questionnaire to thelab within about one week (Klintfors, Lacerda,Sundberg, 2007).ResultsThe results based on 28 completed formsshowed that the child with the smallest vocabulary(4 open class words) had yet not started touse words from close class. The child who producedthe most of the open class words (564open class words) had developed her/his use ofclose class words into 109 close class words.Figure 1. Total number of open class and closeclass words produced per each completed form.Number of open class words (the light line) andclose class words (the dark line) – shown on they-axis are plotted for each completed form –listed on the x-axis.When a child knows approximately 100 openclass words, she/he knows about 10 close classwords – in other words the close class wordsconstitute 10% of the total vocabulary (Figure1). And further, when a child knows about 300open class words, she/he knows about 35 closewords – that is the close class words constitute12% of the total vocabulary. And finally, whena child knows approximately 600 open classwords, she/he knows about 100 close classwords corresponding to 17% of the total vocabulary.DiscussionThe results showed that children’s vocabulariesinitially contain proportionally more open classwords as compared to close class words. Thereafter,the larger the vocabulary size, the biggerproportion of it is devoted for close classwords. The proportion of open vs. close classwords corresponding to total vocabulary size of100, 300, and 600 words, was as follows: 90-10%, 88-12%, 83-17%.Children might pay more attention to openclass words since content words are typicallystressed and more prominent (e.g. the vowelspace of content words is expanded) in CDS(Kuhl et al., 1997; van de Weijer, 1998). Fur-128
<strong>Proceedings</strong>, FOETIK <strong>2009</strong>, Dept. of Linguistics, Stockholm Universityther, the open class words often refer to concreteobjects in the physical world and mighttherefore be learned earlier (Gentner & Boroditsky,2001). Nor are children expected to useclose class words until they have reached certaingrammatical maturity (Håkansson, 1998).The youngest subjects in the current studywere 1.2-years old and some of the forms completedearly on – with vocabularies < 50 words– did not contain any close class words. Shortlythereafter – for vocabularies > 50 words, all thechildren can be assumed to have reachedgrammatical maturity. The current study doesthus not reveal the exact time point for startingto use close class words. Nevertheless, the agegroup of the current study ranged between 1.2-years to 3.6-years and likely captured the timepoint for onset of word spurt. The onset ofword spurt has been documented to take placesometime between the end of the first and theend of the third year of life (Bates et al., 1994).Therefore, the proportional increase of closeclass words being almost twice as large (17%)for vocabulary size of 300 to 600 words, ascompared to vocabulary size from 100 to 300words (10%) is not surprising.One reason for expecting close class wordsto later enter the children’s vocabularies is thatchildren might have more difficult to understandthe abstract meaning of close class words.But closer inspection of the results shows thatchildren start to use close class words althoughthe size of their vocabularies is still relativelysmall. For example, one of the subjects showedat one occasion to have one close class wordand five open class words. But a question to beasked next is how close class words are used inchild language. That is, has the child understoodthe abstract functions of the words used? Itis reasonable that children use close class wordsto express other functions than the originalfunction of the word in question. For example,the word upp (eng. up) might not be the understoodas the abstract content of the prepositionup, but instead used to refer to the action lyftmig upp (eng. lift med up). Using the particle ofa verb and omitting the verb referring to the actionis typical in child language (Håkansson,1998). Thus, the close class words are oftenphonotactically less complex (compare upp tolyfta) and therefore likely more available for thechild. But the use of the word per se does notindicate that the child has understood thegrammatical role of the close class words in thelanguage. The close class words used by the 14-to 43-month-old children in the current studywere Pronouns, Time expressions, prepositions/wordsfor spatial locations, word forAmount and articles, Auxiliary verbs, Connectorsand question words. It may thus be speculatedthat the children in the current study havestarted to perceive and explore the grammaticalstatus of the close class words.AcknowledgementsResearch supported by The Bank of SwedenTercentenary Foundation, and European Commission.We thank Ingrid Broomé, AndreaDahlman, Liz Hultby, Ingrid Rådholm, andAmanda Thorell for data analysis within theirB-level term paper in Logopedics.ReferencesBates, e., Marchman, V., Thal, D., Fenson, L.,Dale, P., Reilly, J., Hartung, J. (1994) Developmentaland stylistic variation in the compositionof early vocabulary. Journal ofChild Language 21, 85-123.Eriksson, M. and Berglund, E. (1995) Instruments,scoring manual and percentile levelsof the Swedish Early Communicative DevelopmentInventory, SECDI, FoUnämnden.Högskolan i Gävle.Gentner, D. and Boroditsky, L. (2001) Individuation,relativity, and early word learning.In Bowerman, M. and Levinson, S. (eds)Language acquisition and conceptual development,215-256. Cambridge UniversityPress, UK.Håkansson, G. (1998). Språkinlärning hos barn.Studentlitteratur.Klintfors, E., Lacerda, F., and Sundberg, U.(2007) Estimates of Infants’ vocabularycomposition and the role of adultinstructionsfor early word-learning.<strong>Proceedings</strong> of <strong>Fonetik</strong> 2007, TMH-QPSR(Stockholm, Sweden) 50, 69-72.Kuhl, K. P., Andruski, J. E., Chistovich, I. A,Chistovich, L. A., Kozhevnikova, E. V.,Ryskina V. L., Stolyarova, E. I., Sundberg,U. and Lacerda, F. (1997) Cross-languageanalysis of phonetic units in language addressedto infants. Science, 277, 684-686.Strömqvist, S. (1997) Om tidig morfologiskutveckling. In Söderberg, R. (ed) Från jollertill läsning och skrivning, 61-80. Gleerups.Strömqvist, S. (2003) Barns tidigaspråkutveckling. In Bjar, L. and Liberg, S.(eds) Barn utvecklar sitt språk, 57-77.Studentlitteratur.Weijer, J. van de (1998) Language input forword discovery. Ph.D thesis. Max PlanckSeries in Psycholinguistics 9.129
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