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UNISCI Discussion Papers, Nº 33 (Octubre / October 2013) ISSN 1696-2206attractive”. 43 The exclusive nature of the CPA meant that there was little formal pursuit forlocal post-conflict reconciliation because the leadership of neither protagonist was willing tosubmit to a review of atrocities committed during the war. In Southern Sudan, where most ofthe war took place, and many human rights violations had been committed by both parties,this process was largely left to the South-South dialogue and reconciliation conferencesendorsed by the SPLM/A and international actors.Moreover, the agreement lacked an instrument to apply pressure towards transformationof the consolidated political and economic dynamics established before and during theconflict. Although it included limited international guarantees along with the establishment ofthe United Nations Mission to Sudan (UNMIS) peace-keeping and monitoring force, theapplication of such pressure to ensure the correct and timely CPA implementation was left tothe responsibility of the interested international actors to be applied through informalchannels.Furthermore, the CPA’s attempt to incorporate the SPLM/A leadership in the nationalpolitical and economic elite was not enough to cause peaceful transition because it did little toalter the pre-existing power structures. It failed to address the national centre-periphery natureof the complex civil war, ignoring other relevant political actors in north, east, south, andwest, while it reaffirmed the NCP’s control of the national political and economic scene inSudan and SPLM/A dominated political order in Southern Sudan without clear mechanismsof addressing local grievances emanating from the war.Finally, the “peace-through-statebuilding” approach adopted in Southern Sudan basedon the attempt to achieve stability in short-term by building state institutions and reformingthe security apparatus was an exclusive strategy. It sidelined nationbuilding, a more long-termprocess aimed at bringing legitimacy to the prevailing political order through the constructionand extension of common national identity. This approach by the external actors maintained,and consolidated, a political system in which exclusive governance maintaining violence of“direct” and “structural” kind, 44 continued to prevail, and prevent a process towards inclusive“positive peace”. 45 During the period focused in this article, the intervention pursued aimed atpromoting absence of violence by exclusively concentrating on building state institutions, butthis was insufficient in generating legitimacy without simultaneous attempt to unite SouthernSudanese through nationbuilding. Local outbursts of armed conflict continued, and, oftenmotivated by political and economic grievances, claimed thousands of lives.4. Peace-through-Statebuilding and CPA Implementation4.1. In Pursuit of Peace-through-StatebuildingThe process of internationally supported statebuilding in Southern Sudan began after thesigning of the CPA in 2005. From the outset, the external actors began pursuing a highlyhierarchical approach to peace-through-statebuilding. 46 This was featured by the attempt toconstruct strong state institutions where almost none had existed before, relying on an43 Ibid., p. ix.44 Galtung, Johan: “Violence, Peace, and Peace Research”, Journal of Peace Research, vol. 6, n°3 (1969), pp.167-191.45 Galtung, Johan: “An Editorial”, Journal of Peace Research, vol. 1, n° 1 (1964), pp. 1-4.46 See Figure 1.22
UNISCI Discussion Papers, Nº 33 (Octubre / October 2013) ISSN 1696-2206exclusive partnership with the SPLM/A leadership assumed to have the capacity to exercisewide control over the territory. It meant that various dimensions of the intervention to beimplemented were subjected to the SPLM/A approval as it was seen as the main legitimateinterlocutor for, and actor in, the region through its role as the leading military (SPLA) andpolitical force (SPLM/GoSS). The SPLM/A was viewed as “the state” and proportioned withincreased power to allocate resources and services. However, this approach relied on theSPLM/A, which had been one of a number of actors during the war, and against which manysoutherners had also fought, to fulfill its commitment to govern the heterogeneous southernpopulation beyond its own constituencies. This provided an avenue for the continuation ofstructural violence particularly against those sectors of the Southern Sudanese population thatwere marginalized by the by the SPLM/A orchestrated political and economic system.Figure 1Hierarchical Model of Peace-through-StatebuildingUnited Nations & MajorExternal ActorsGovernment of SouthernSudanCivil SocietyModified by the author from “Hierarchical UN Peacebuilding”presented by Michael Lawrence athttp://www.cigionline.org/blogs/rethinking-peacebuilding/two-modesof-un-peacebuildingThe international interveners in Southern Sudan were largely motivated by the reestablishmentof stability and “normality” by equating peace with development. 47 They, to anextent, adopted SPLM/A’s “peace through development” agenda 48 through which it hadjustified the importance of humanitarian intervention during the war. The most significantcomponent of the externally introduced program has been statebuilding, through theestablishment the semi-autonomous GoSS, and applying approach to “good governance”,with the intent in the creation of strong institutions and administrations, the strengthening ofthe security sector through reform to establish effective “monopoly of violence”, and the reestablishingof a formal (peace) market economy.However, during 2005-2010 the hierarchical approach pursued lacked focus on creatinglegitimacy for the newly built state. Nationbuilding, and bringing together the highlyheterogeneous population sectors of which harbored deep grievances against the SPLM/A,was neglected. It was not until the end of the Interim Period and after heightening prospectsfor the independence of Southern Sudan were inspired by the approaching referendum for47 Duffield, Mark (2001): Global Governance and the New Wars: The Merging of Development and Security,London, Zed Books.48 SPLM/A: Peace Through Development: Perspectives and Prospects in the Sudanm, Sudan People’s LiberationMovement, Nairobi, 2000.23
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