[Edited_by_A._Ciancio,_C.N.R.,_Bari,_Italy_and_K.(Bookos.org)

92
L. ZAPPALÀ
Australia. Effective parasitoids of C. capitata are Psyttalia concolor (Szlep.)
(Hymenoptera: Braconidae) and Pachyneuron vindemmiae (Rond.) (Hymenoptera:
Pteromalidae). Efforts have been made to develop biological control programs using
P. concolor, but with very limited success. This is mainly due to the high intrinsic
rate of increase of the Mediterranean fruit fly and also to the behaviour of larvae,
which feed and develop inside the fruits and therefore easily escape parasitization by
braconid wasps, especially when infesting large fruits. In the Mediterranean basin,
natural control is mainly carried out by microorganisms and occasional predators
(Coleoptera Carabidae and Staphylinidae, Hymenoptera Formicidae of the genus
Crematogaster), mostly active in soil against larvae and pupae.
Cultural control methods, such as reducing the favourable host plants
consociations, eliminating the infestation site and destroying infested fruits, are
fundamental elements in field programs aiming at reducing the Mediterranean fruit
fly populations.
Chromotropic and chemotropic traps are used to attract adults. Males of C.
capitata are known to be attracted by essential oils from Angelica archangelica L.,
which contain several sesquiterpene hydrocarbons (α-copaene, α-ylangene, etc.).
The same kind of molecules are also contained in coriander, mint, thyme and citrus
essence. However, none of these compounds found practical application, differently
from what happened for esters of the methylcyclohexanecarboxylic acid: siglure,
medlure, trimedlure. Other attractants commonly used are also ammonium
compounds (diammonium phosphate) and hydrolyzed proteins. These compounds
attract both males and females (while parapheromones attract only males) within a
range of 20 m, but they mainly attract females looking for proteins. However these
attractants are less selective towards beneficials.
A possible control method is the “attract and kill” technique which is based on
the use of devices pre-treated with a pyrethroid (mainly deltamethrin or lambdacyhalothrin)
and activated with trimedlure or with hydrolyzed proteins. This
technique is suggested on orchards with a minimum extension of 5 ha, unless they
are isolated enough.
Chemical control can be performed using deltamethrin, etofenprox, phosmet and
spinosad bait which has been recently authorized on citrus in Italy. In order to
contain the negative secondary effects on the biocenosis it is highly recommended to
perform localized treatments adding protein baits to the toxic compound. The
treatments should be started in mid-July and repeated every 25–30 days, spraying
trees only partially on one every two–three rows, and using around 200 l of solution
per hectare. The treatments should be extended to the whole orchard when 20 or
more adults are captured on the traps and/or after the first punctures on the fruits are
observed. The results of trials carried out to evaluate in the field the repellent and
oviposition deterrent effect of clays and copper products, that can also be used in
organic groves, showed that kaolin can be applied to reduce the percentange of
infested fruits (showing C. capitata punctures) at harvest (Caleca, Lo Verde,
Palumbo Piccionello, & Rizzo, 2008).
In several countries severe quarantine measures are applied, strongly affecting
importation, in order to avoid the introduction and the permanent establishment of
the Mediterranean fruit fly. Infested or potentially infested fruits are rejected or