Semiotics for Beginners by Daniel Chandler

Semiotics for Beginners by Daniel Chandler
• Relative autonomy: This is a term adopted from Althusserian Marxism, where it refers to the relative
independence of the 'superstructure' of society (including ideology) from the economic (or techno-economic)
'base' (in contrast to the orthodox marxist stance that the latter determines the former - a stance similar to that of
technological determinism). In the context of semiotics, Saussure's model of the sign assumes the relative
autonomy of language in relation to 'reality' (it does not directly feature a 'real world' referent); there is no essential
bond between words and things. In a semiotic system with double articulation the levels of the signifier and of the
signified are relatively autonomous. The signifier and the signified in a sign are autonomous to the extent that
their relationship is arbitrary (commentators also speak of 'relative arbitariness' or 'relative conventionality'). See
also: Arbitrariness, Articulation, The bar, Constructivism, Conventionality, Idealism, Modes of relationship,
Nomenclaturism, Primacy of the signifier
• Relativism/relativity, cultural: See Cultural relativism
• Relativism, epistemological: The term 'relativism' is frequently either a term of abuse used by critics of
constructivism (notably realists, for whom it may refer to any epistemological stance other than realism) or by
constructivists themselves referring to a position whereby 'anything goes' with which they do not want to be
associated. Critics associate relativism with an extreme idealism or nihilism denying the existence of a real
material world - which it does not necessarily entail. Since few theorists choose to label themselves relativists it is
difficult to define the term adequately. One characterization is as the stance that there are numerous alternative
versions of reality which can only be assessed in relation to each other and not in relation to any 'absolute', fixed
and universal truth, reality, meaning, knowledge or certainty. Such categories are contingent - temporary,
provisional and dependent on context and circumstances. Any defence of absolutes tends to be denounced as
'metaphysics'. There can be no 'value-free' facts. Relativism is in tune with the emphasis in Saussurean
structuralism on the relative position of signs within a signifying system rather than on 'things'. Relativism is an
anti-essentialist position. The semiotic stance which problematizes 'reality' and emphasizes mediation and
representational convention in the form of codes is criticized as relativism (or extreme conventionalism) by those
veering towards realism. Such critics often object to what they see as a sidelining of referential concerns which
are foundational in realist discourse - such as truth, facts, accuracy, objectivity, bias and distortion. Even in
relation to the interpretation of a text, the stance that meaning depends on how readers interpret it rather than
residing 'within' the text has been criticized by literalists as relativism (see Affective fallacy). Critics sometimes
note that relativists cannot logically make any general statements even about relativism. See also:
Constructivism, Conventionalism, Cultural relativism, Epistemology, Essentialism, Idealism, Priorism, Realism,
Reality, Relativism, linguistic, Representation, Universalism, cognitive, Whorfianism
• Relativism/relativity, linguistic: Linguistic relativism is the view that every language is a unique system of relations
and, more radically, that the phonological, grammatical and semantic distinctions in different languages are
completely arbitrary. Thus, on the semantic level, reality is divided up into arbitrary categories by every language
and different languages have different in-built ontologies. Concepts may not be translatable. Linguistic relativism
emphasizes the contingency of signifieds. It is closely associated with epistemological relativism and is a
fundamental assumption involved in Whorfianism. An opposing viewpoint is that of linguistic universalism. Both
linguistic relativism and linguistic universalism are compatible with Structuralism. See also: Cultural relativism,
Relativism, epistemological, Translatability, Universalism, linguistic, Whorfianism
• Relativism/relativity, ontological: See Ontology
• Representamen: The representamen is one of the three elements of Peirce's model of the sign and it refers to the
form which the sign takes (not necessarily material). When it refers to a non-material form it is comparable to
Saussure's signifier; whereas when it refers to material form it is what some commentators refer to as the sign
vehicle. See also: Peircean model of the sign, Signifier
• Representation: In general usage, this term refers to the depiction of something in any medium in the form of a
text. However, as standard dictionaries remind us, a representation is something which stands for or in place of
something else - which is of course what semioticians call a sign. Semiotics foregrounds and problematizes the
process of representation. It is a widespread semiotic stance that reality is always represented - what we treat as
'direct' experience is 'mediated' by perceptual codes - perception involves mental representation. Representation
always involves 'the construction of reality'. All texts, however 'realistic' they may seem to be (as in audio-visual
media), are constructed representations rather than simply transparent 'reflections', recordings, transcriptions or
reproductions of a pre-existing reality. Except in the case of digitally-sourced reproductions, texts are constructed
from different materials from that which they represent, and representations cannot be replicas. Whether through
'direct' perception or mediated texts, what we experience as realities always involve codes. Representations
which become familiar through constant re-use come to feel 'natural' and unmediated, and can even shape what
we accept as reality (at least within a genre). In our daily behaviour we routinely act on the basis that some
representations of reality are more reliable than others - we make modality judgements about them.