ofthe SAME TREE

On the basis of later evidence we can probably assume that camphor was
traditionally collected by Batak men under a special leader (in subsequent
centuries called pawang), whose spiritual prowess was employed in locating
the elusive commodity. Nevertheless, even with the aid of religious practitioners
and adherence to strict taboos, including the use of a special camphor
language, expeditions were not always successful. Writing in the late eighteenth
century, William Marsden claimed that not even 10 percent of the trees
cut down yielded any crystallized resin or camphor oil. Benzoin trees were
tapped for their resin after seven years but stopped producing after about
ten to twelve years. The finest was obtained in the first three years of tapping.
After that the quality deteriorated and had a lower market value. 16
Only small quantities of camphor and benzoin were brought to China,
India, and the Middle East in the early sixth century, which kept their value
high. In the eighth century, camphor was being included as tribute to the
Chinese emperor from non-Indonesian rulers, indicating that camphor was
growing in popularity in other areas. 17 Export of benzoin to China may have
begun as early as the fifth century, though some believe that it began as late
as the eighth or even the ninth century. 18 This increased demand for camphor
and benzoin was met by Sriwijaya, which was the dominant entrepot in the
Straits of Melaka between the seventh and eleventh centuries.
The Ligor inscription dated 775 CE indicates an expansion of Sriwijayan
power across the straits. A consequence of, and perhaps even an important
motivation for, this expansion would have been the control of camphor supplies
from the Isthmus of Kra and the Malay Peninsula. The annals of the
Liang dynasty, which ruled China from 502 to 556 CE, mention that camphor
came from both Funan and Langkasuka. Funan must have imported and
redistributed the camphor since it did not produce the Dryobalanops aromatica
variety brought into China. 19 Sriwijaya’s incursion on the peninsula would
have prevented further export of camphor to ports on the Mekong delta. By
the latter part of the eighth century, therefore, Sriwijaya may have succeeded
in monopolizing the sale of camphor and benzoin in the region.
A major source of Sriwijayan camphor and benzoin was the forests in
northwest Sumatra. The supply route from these forests to Sriwijaya went
to Padang Lawas via Sipirok and the valley of the Batang Toru. There is little
evidence that Padang Lawas was ever a large settlement, but it may have
been a trade center linking the northwestern areas of production to east coast
Sumatra. 20 From here there was a route leading directly to Barus, as well as
two alternate routes southward. One of the southern routes went via Padang
Sidempuan to the valley of the Batang Angkola, while the other passed near
Sibuhuan in the Padang Lawas across the mountains into the Angkola valley
near Si Abu. From the Angkola valley the route continued southward through
The Batak Malayu 149